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(a) Kondadev

Marathi language and literature also served to develop unity among the people.

The Maratha empire reached the heights of its power and glor during the reign of Balaji Vishwanath.

Kanhoji Angre was the chief of the Maratha Navy.

He chose Maharani Tarabai’s side.

He attacked areas which belonged to Shahu Maharaj.

Shahu Maharaj sent Balaji Vishwanath against Kanhoji.

Balaji avoided the war and won Kanhoji towards the side of Shahu Maharaj

• Balaji Vishwanath was a prominent Maratha Sardar.
• He hailed from Shrivardhan, a town in Konkan.
• He was industrious and experienced.
• He convinced many Sardars to join hands with Shahu Maharaj.
• Kanhoji Angre, the chief of the Maratha Navy was against Shahu Maharaj and sided with Maharani Tarabai.
• He was sent against Kanhoji.
• Balaji avoided the war and diplomatically turned Kanhoji towards Shahu Maharaj’s side.

1. Balaji Vishwanath laid the foundation of the Hereditary Dynastic rule of the Peshwas.

2. Lucknow was the cultural capital of Awadh.

3. Mysore, under the leadership of Hyder Ali became the most formidable adversary of the English East India Company in the south.

4. Guru Govind Singh ji, the tenth Sikh guru, organized a military brotherhood of Sikhs called Khalsa.

5. The Sikhs were organized into a loose confederacy of 12 misls or groups.

The Christian missionaries spread Christianity in India and played a significant role in promoting language, literature and art. 

1. The missionaries in order to understand and be understood by the Indian people brought out grammars and dictionaries of the Indian languages. 

2. St. Francis Xavier learnt the language of Malabar and brought out a manual of grammar and a vocabulary which helped the Jesuits and other missionaries to learn the language of the people of Malabar. 

3. The English Jesuit, Thomas Stephens, brought out an epic in Konkani and a grammar book. Diogo Ribeiro, another English missionary, wrote a grammar book and booklets on Christian doctrines. 

4. The Missionaries, besides working in language and literature, contributed to other arts. They began teaching Western music in Church schools in India. Apart from music, they also taught dance and instrumental music. Many churches had music schools, so that in every church hymns were sung, accompanied by organ and instruments. 

5. The Missionaries and the Church were also teachers and patrons in India of the arts of painting, carving and sculpture. Most of the paintings were religious in theme and adorned the Churches. These paintings influenced the Mughals. Portuguese, English and Mughal records show the interest of Akbar and Jahangir in Christian works of arts. 

6. The Missionaries were the best interpreters of India to the Western world with their popular letters from the mission field.

In Mauryan reign, the famous currencies of Pakistan were Cowrie, Dhela, Paisa. Damri, Aana, Rupee. In Mauryan reign, Pakistan was a part of India only.

The commercial intercourse between India and Egypt was held at the coast of the Red Sea. A port ‘Barnes’ was constructed, from where three main overland routes proceeded to the famous port of ‘Alexandria’.

According to Kautilya (Chanakya), elements of refinement existed in Mauryan period Trading. In Mauryan reign, different separate markets were found for different articles. According to Kautilya, separate arrangements were there for shops of food items like sweets, meat, rice, chapatti etc. Trade was specialized, Kashmir, Kaushal, Vidarbha and Kalinga were trade centres for diamonds. Himachal Pradesh was known for leather, Bengal for muslin, Jamraparni Pandya and Kerala were well – known centres for Pearl. The state had full control on trade-in Mauryan reign.

The word ‘Sufi’ has come from the Arabic word ‘Sufi meaning wool and was used for the mystics who used to wear only a coarse woolen garment some scholars say, it is derived from ‘Safa’, meaning purity. Sufis came to India with the Turkish invaders. Sufism is a sect of religion preaching tolerance, brotherhood and oneness of God. 

Two Sufi Saints were: 

1. Hazarat Khwaja Muin-ud-Din Chisti. 

2. Hazarat Khwaja Nizam-ud-Din Auliya of Delhi.

During Mauryan reign, there was a network of overland routes in West Magadh. Through the main highway, North India was connected with South India. This route passed through Ujjain, Vidisha, Kaushambi, Saket, to Shravasti. Similarly, the second highway connected Western coast to East coast, passing by Braghukuch to Kaushambi to Tamralipti. Third highway joining/linking Eastern India with Western India was used to travel from Patliputra to Iran.

The Fourth highway, was from Champa, reaching Pushkalawati. On this route, the famous cities of Panchal, Kampilya and Shakal were situated. This route reached Taxila. Kautilya has called sea highways as ‘Sanyan Path’. The ships sailing over oceans were named as ‘Pravahn’. This proves that the condition of trade in Mauryan reign was good because the growth of the basic structure of transport increased the trading element. Likewise, it is proved that in Mauryan reign, domestic trade was as good as International trade. Trade routes played a very important role in this.

16 annas would make 1 rupee in Mauryan reign.

Bodhgaya has mentioned many periodical sea voyages in the life of citizens of North India. This reference can be used to assert that North Indian merchants used sea routes for trading during that period. At many places in Ramayana, references of loaded ships in the mid of sea are given. Ancient Buddhist literature also contains ample evidence of sea trade by merchants which were very well fitted out and able to make long voyages.

During Alexander’s attack on Khastriya republic, citizens of this state gifted to his army ship having 30 oars. Strabo has written that Mauryans had a monopoly in the art of building ships, Jatakas contain several allusions to masted ships. It is evident from Jatakas, that during this period such big ships were there which could accommodate 1000 passengers/animals along with seven caravans.

It is mentioned in Milindpajah that Indians made voyages to Bengal, Malaya Plateau, China, Gujarat, Kathiawar, Alexandria, Coromandal – Coast and eastern islands of Indonesia, Java and many more faraway places through ships which made the shipowners very rich.

Around 60 AD.

River of Iran, named – Kardbh.

Umiyak is a big boat used by Eskimo tribes during hunting whate.

Bhil tribe used a snare to catch birds. This snare is called ‘Phatkiya’.

The impact of the Bhakti movement under the given heads is explained as under: 

(a). Ensuring Harmony between Hindus and Muslims: The Bhakti movement became popular in the whole of India. The saints and reformers offered the people a simple religion devoid of complicated rituals a religion, which required only sincere devotion to God. They tried to reform Hinduism so that it could successfully withstand the challenges of Islam and they also tried to ensure harmony between the two communities—Hindus and Muslims in an atmosphere of toleration and co-operation. The message of religious toleration made a profound impression on Several Muslim rulers. They attracted many devotes from both the communities and exercised a stabilizing influence on society.

(b). Preaching the fundamental Equality of all human beings: They tried to evolve a new social order by following the principle of equality and by denouncing caste distinctions. They exposed the futility of external rituals and set free the minds of the people from the domination of the priests. Thus, the movement brought in not only religious reforms, but also social changes. 

(c). Promoting regional languages and Devotional Literature: The Bhakti reformers preached to the people in their mother-tongue and it provided an impetus for the development of regional languages such as Hindi Bengali,Marathi, Maithili, Gujarati etc. Their compositions rank very high in the devotional literature of the world.

1. True

2. True 

3. False 

4. True 

5. False

(b) Boat of Eskimos

Gonds are self-dependent. Their main economic activity is Jhooming agriculture and hunting. They also do the work of collection of forest produce, cattle-breeding and catching fish. Dippa agriculture is a type of Jhooming farming in which land is left after three years farming. In such type of agriculture, the field is prepared by burning and slashing the trees and shrubs and by clearing the land.

The field is tilled and seeds are sprinkled. Painda type of cultivation is practiced in Bastar in Madhya Pradesh in terraced fields on steep mountainous slopes. Kukhru, Devat and Dheevar classes perform the work of catching fish. Ravat class mainly performs animal husbandry They also hunt animals.

1. Habital regions: Bhils live in inaccessible and uninhabited mountainous regions. They live in Aravalli, Vindhyachal and Satpura mountains and in forest regions. Bhils are found in four states of India – Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Bhils are found mostly in Banswara, Dungarpur, Udaipur and Chittorgarh in Rajasthan, Dhar, Jhabua and Ratlam in Madhya Pradesh, Panchmahal and Vadodara in Gujarat, Aurangabad, Ahmednagar, Jalgaon, Nashik and Dhule districts in Maharashtra.

2. Economy: Bhils reside in lonely place of forest and mountainous region. The main base of their livelihood is food collection from forest, hunting, shifting agriculture arid rearing livestock. Women collect and store ediable roots, flowers, fruits from the forest. They hunt wild animals and birds. They produce food grains, vegetables and fodder. They perform the work of cattle breeding also.

(a) Hunting: They hunt animals in the forest using arrow and bows. Men catch fish from ponds. Earlier, they were excellent hunters, but now they perform farming also. Almost 80% of the Bhils perform farming now. Jhooming cultivation in mountainous regions is called Chimata and cultivation done in plain regions is called Dajia.

(b) Food: They eat maize for the entire year. At the time of festivals, they prepare chokha (rice) and lapsi. They made ‘Rabari’ by boiling butter milk and flour. Wheat, urad, moong and vegetable are also included now in their foods. According to tradition, they are vegetarian.

(c) Clothes: Bhils used to wear very less clothes before independence. Men used to wear boxers made of husk and women wore peticoats. Now – a – days, men have started wearing shirt, dhoti, turban or pant – shirt. Women wear ghaghara, kanchali and loongari. Boys wear laincloth and girls wear ghaghari and odhani. The Bhils wear ornaments made of silver, bronze, zinc and nickel. Bhil women embellish themselves with lakh and glass bangles.

(d) Residence: The houses of Bhils are found to be scattered. Their houses are called Koo. They usually live in huts. Their houses are made of grass and weed and rag. Group of their small villages is called Fala and a large village is called Pal.

(e) Tools and Utensils: Bow – arrow, sword and dagger are their major weapons. Arrows are of two types – one is called Hariyo and the other is called Robado. A type of snare called Phatakiya is used to catch birds. Richer Bhils have started using guns also. It is mandatory for the Bhils to use utensils made of clay, treadmill to grind maize and cradle are made of bamboo.

3. Sociaty and Culture: Bhils remain organised in various patriarchal groups and clans. People of every clan live in separate villages. Every clan has its respective clan symbol. Whether he is an old or a young person, every Bhil has a wife even if it is a normal marriage or she has been ravished and brought. Polygyny is also prominent in their society.

Normally, the proposal of marriage comes from the groom’s side. In this tradition, a price is paid for the bride, called Dapa system, which has to be paid by the father of the bridegroom. Through the system of ‘Gol – Gadhedon’, any young man gets the right to choose his bride by showing his valour and courage.

They are worshippers of nature. They also worship agricultural implements and equipments also, as most of the Bhils are farmers. Many gods and goddesses are worshipped by them. Some people worship Nag-devata. They are superstitious and believe in ghosts. They perform cremation of the dead.

In Bhil tribe, the bride’s side has to pay the price of the daughter to the groom’s side during marriage. This practice of paying a price for the daughter is called Dapa practice.

The house made of wood and structure of whale bones elevated 2-3 feet, below 5-6 feet under the ground by the Eskimo tribe is called Karmak.

In Bhil tribe, when a young man obtains the right to choose a girl for marriage while showing his strength and courage, this process is known as ‘Gol – Gadhedon’ practice.

(a) Sanyan Route

Faire – Faire is the ‘Ranghosh’ of Bhils.

(c) Importing and exporting

Beneshwardham fair is the major fair of the Bhils. It is organised at the triveni confluence of rivers Som, Jhakham and Mahi in Rajasthan.

(b) Ancient India

In History, ancient India implies the time period before the Indus Valley Civilization until the establishment of Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal empire (12th century). During this period, many dynasties ruled in India – Maurya dynasty, Shunga dynasty, Satavahana dynasty, Kushan, Gupta, Pallavas, Cholas, Chalukya, Gurjar, Pratihara, Pal, Sen, Rashtrakuta dynasty, etc. Indian traded flourished continuously during the reign of all these rulers.

One can conclude on the basis of the degree of homogeneity found in handmade goods in Harappan culture, that art and sculpture were fully organized and goods distribution system was well – managed and systematic. Special stones were imported from one place and the same type of items were made at different places from it, likewise stamps, ‘bathare’, ‘make’, etc, were made in new towns but were distributed throughout all the areas of Harappan civilization.

Islamic architecture added spaciousness, massiveness and majesty to the Indian architecture .The geometrical and floral designs withe verses from Quran were another additional features to the buildings. The design of goldes kalash (the omate lotus cresting) at the top of the temples was adopted by Muslims.

The characteristics of Muslim architecture under the given heads are explained below: 

Mosques and Tombs: The Muslim structures are of two types : religious and secular. The religious structures are mosques and tombs. The mosque has an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah. For congregational prayer-hall having a reces alcove called Mehrab in the western wall at the back of the hall. On the right side of the Mehrab, stands pulpit and a minaret or tower above the walls from which Muazzin summons the faithful to worship. Over the sanctuary, is the central dome. The tombs are the resting places for the dead. The Tomb has a chamber, with a Mehrab in the western wall. The whole structure is surmounted by a graceful dome. Underneath the building, is the burial chamber with the grave (Kabr) in the center of it.

Role of Sufism: 

1. It fostered the feelings of Hindu-Muslim unity. 

2. Sufism made its influence on the poets of the period, like Amir Khusro and Malik Mushammed Jayasi, who composed poems in Persian and Hindi in praise of Sufi principles. 

Role of Bhakti Movement 

1. Bhakti saints preached universal brotherhood and emphasised equality of all men. 

2. The Bhakti saints preached in the language of the people. Languages such as Hindi, Bhojpuri, Maithili and Oriya became popular. Among important literary works of this period were Ramcharit Manas by Tulsidas, Gurmukhi literature of the Sikh Gurus and the Vaishnava literature in Bengal.

Two features of Mughal Architecture are:

1. Pronounced dome on the top of the structure. 

2. Entrance with rectangular opening under the arch.

1. Meaning of Eskimo: The literal meaning of Eskimo is meat eater and inhabitant of snowy region.

2. Physical Structure: Eskimos tribe is related to Mangol race. The face of Eskimos is wide and flat. Colour of skin is yellowish – brown, hair clumsy and black, height-medium, nose-flat, eyes deep, chocolate colour and slanting. Their body is strong and muscular.

3. Behaviour: There behaviour is simple. They maintain their stability, seriousness and intelligence.

4. Habitat areas: Eskimos are limited to the Arctic and Tundra regions from the very beginning. In this region, their extension is from Alaska to Bering Strait. They live in Alaska, Canada and Greenland and in the region of North Siberia. These are the inhabitants of unfavourable climatic regions.

Social Condition: 

1. Regional Name: Eskimos are known by different names in different areas. In Canada and Greenland, they are known as Eskimo, in Scandinavia as Laps, and in North Siberia as Samoyeds, Yakut, Chakchi and Tung.

2. Food system: Eskimos are the eaters of raw meat. They eat fishes, whales, polar bear, sea-lion, hare, wolf and walrus.

3. Clothes: Eskimos wear clothes made from caribov skin. Samoor of the polar bear is also used to make clothes. Women and men wear similar kind of clothes. Clothes are made by’women. They wear Timiyak – a jersey – type cloth with arms and the Timiyak is called Anohak and their shoes are called Karmik or Muklooks.

4. Residence or House: Their domed house is known as Igloo and it is made of snow. Houses built from bones are known as Karmak.

5. Social and Cultural Structure: These people live in small groups. They lead a vagabond life. Their society is patriarchal and they give priority to polygyny. They speak Aleut language and are superstitious.

Economic Activities: 

1. Hunting: Hunting is the main livelihood of Eskinos. They hunt animals in different ways in winter and summer. They hunt seal mainly. Maypak and Iturpak are the methods of hunting during winter. During the summer season, they use bows and arrows to hunt hare, wolf, duck, birds, etc.

2. Tools and Equipments: Eskimos use various types of tools and equipments. Spear used by them is called Harpoon, boat made of leather is called Kayak/Qayaq, bigger boat is called Umiyak and the cart without wheels which is used for hunting is called Sledge.

Present time condition of Eskimos: After 1960, this tribe outer people. Now they use gun for hunting. They use moter based boat in place of Kayak/Qayaq and snow scooter in place of sledge. Their lifestyle has transformed due to facilities provided by American government.

(b) One who eats raw meat

Bows and arrow, pointed rod, spear, burcha and agnidand are the main weapons of the Bushman Tribe.

Correct Answer is: (a) Negrito

Correct Answer is: (b) Bushman

Maurya dynasty, Shunga dynasty, Satavahana Dynasty, Kushan, Gupta, Pallavas, Cholas, Chalukya, Gurjar, Pratihara, Pal, Sen, Rashtrakuta dynasty etc. ruled over India from the period of Indus valley civilization to Mauryan period. The history of business and trade of ancient India has been very rich and glorious.

(c) land tax

Chimata is another name of jhooming farming done by Bhils in mountainous regions.