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EW Burgess has offered fourfold classification:

(i) Cultural institutions for transmitting social heritage like family, school and religious institution 

(ii) Economic institutions for organizing of services of utility like bank, labor union, commercial and industrial enterprises. 

(iii) Recreational institution for satisfying human desire of entertainment amusement and play etc. 

(iv) Social control institutions for solving problem of society and personality.

All science are useful to the human begins in one or the other manner. Professor Giddings says, “Sociology tells us how to become what we want to become”. The study of Sociology has a great practical importance in the modern complex society which is as follows:

1. Development of Personality: Man is fundamental a social being. He has to adjust to the changing conditions of the society’. In order to adjust, he is in need of knowledge of the society. Sociology gives a scientific and a comprehensive knowledge of human society. The scientific knowledge about the structure of society, its development, change, problems, individuals rights and obligations etc, makes not only individual an enlighten member of the society, but also leads to the development of his personality in a proper manner.

2. Change in Attitudes: Sociology is useful in developing rational attitudes towards society, religion, customs, mores, institutions, values; ideologies etc. Sociology plays a important role in changing the attitudes towards others. The study of Sociology helps us to overcome prejudices about others people, class, caste, religious hat redness, misconceptions, ambitions, Totally Sociology helps us to develop a critical approach towards the Social World, so that we can have better relations with the people of not only our society, but also with people of other societies Solution of Social Problems: Every society is facing its own problems.

For ex, India is facing so many social problems like Poverty, Unemployment, Terrorism, Corruption, Untouchability Prostitution, Gambling, Over population, Beggary etc. they deep study of these problems is necessary to solve them, Sociology helps us to make an objective study of social problems. It’s also gives valuable suggestions to solve.

3. Social Planning and Policy Making: Sociology is playing a key role in social planning and policy making Sociological knowledge is very much useful and the service and suggestions of expert sociologists are sought even in the formulations of Government Policies, Social legislations, regarding family, population control, child labour, environment pollution, beggary, etc.

4. To promote Welfare of the Backward and Weaker Section of the Societyrln India SC’s, ST’s and other weaker sections are explained social economic & political field for centuries. To promote welfare programmers for these groups sociological knowledge is necessary.

5. Sociology as a Attractive Teaching Subject: Sociology is gaining importance as a popular teaching subject, Carriers apart from teaching are now possible in Sociology, Sociology is introduced as one of the subject to be studied in many colleges and Universities, Sociology is also included in the subjects to be offered by candidates taking competitive examinations like IAS, IPS, IFS, KAS and KES etc. there are many employment opportunities in-many fields like Education, social Welfare, Family Welfare, Public Administration, Women and Child Welfare Department etc.

Role of Sociology in developing countries: Social factors are also responsible for the economic backwardness particularly in under developed countries. Economists have now realized the importance of sociological information and knowledge in analyzing the economic life goes their countries. So, it has been said that “Economist should be Sociologist also”.

6. Sociological Knowledge about modern situations and developments: Sociology always gives information about the recent changes and development that takes place in and around us. So that, we can act according to the changes. The knowledge about these things makes us conscious about our responsibilities towards society.

Conclusion: We can be convinced of the importance or uses of Sociology by the above explanation. Is has both personal and social advantages. The question of the value of Sociology is therefore not a question of whether or not should have such a science, but a question of how the knowledge acquired by it can be used.

(c) Auguste Comte – Theory of ‘Law of Three Stages’

(a) Social isolation – Egoistic suicide

(a) Le Suicide – Durkheim

(b) Caste and Race in India – Dr. G. S. Ghurye

“Positive Philosophy"

1. Ghurye referred to the long process of Hinduisation of the tribes from different parts of India. 

2. Tribal deities like Ganesh, Kali, Shiva were getting equal space in Hinduism with Aryan deities like, Indra, Vishnu and Brahma for establishing synthesis between multiple cultures present in Indian society. 

3. As a result the tribes of India considered Hindu society and its cultural tradition, a new home for them, referred as Hinduisation of the tribes by Ghurye. 

4. Many tribal leaders like Tana Bhagat, Vishnu Bhagat, Kabir Panthi and others successfully carried Hindu cultural attributes to tribal life.

This statement is False.

1. Though there is a tendency to think of sociology as a western phenomenon, but scholars like Abdul Rahman IbnKhaldun were doing Sociology long ago in different parts of the world. 

2. Abdul Rahman Ibn-Khaldun was born in Tunis in North Africa and was committed to the scientific study of society, empirical research and the search for the causes of social phenomena. 

3. He devoted attention to various social institutions and their interrelationships. He was interested in comparing primitive and modern societies.

This statement is True.

1. According to Comte every individual develops as per his stages of development in childhood, in adolescence and in adulthood. 

2. The evolution of human mind takes place along with the evolution of the individual mind. 

3. Human knowledge passes through these three stages of evolution, theological stage Comte is of the view that in the first stage, ideas and views were influenced by spiritual and supernatural factors, metaphysical stage. In this stage, explanations based on faith in supernatural beings were replaced by those based on abstract power, positive stage this is an improved and scientific form of human thinking. 

4. Comte wanted Sociology to develop through these stages. Hence, Auguste Comte formulated the theories of ‘Law of Three Stages’.

1. Yes, there is a reason for the intestine to be coiled with many folds.

2. The coiled and folded nature of intestine slows down the passage of food along the intestine and afford an increased surface area for absorption. 

3. It also increases the surface area for the intestine to increase the absorption of nutrients through finger-like projections villi. 

4. The folded and coiled intestine absorbs nutrients and water more than they breakdown.

Yes, the smell of tasty dish increases our appetite.

Reason : 

1. The length of small intestine is 7 meters long. 

2. It is coiled so as to fit in the human body. 

3. It is coiled to increase surface area and maximum nutrient absorption when food passes through it.

Reason: 

1. When we take lot of fluids, the kidneys will efficiently throw the water out by forming more urine than usual. 

2. When there is excess water in the body, the brain usually produces less of a hormone called vasopressin.

3. This in turn causes the kidneys to produce a lot of dilute urine, until excess water is removed.

The scientist associated with Galapagos island Darwin.

Philosophic Zoologique is written by Lamarck.

Evening prime rose.

Lamarckism the theory given by Lamarck.

1. The enteric nervous system, the second brain consists of sheaths of neurons embedded in the walls of the long tube of our gut, or alimentary canal. 

2. The second brain measures about nine meters to end from the oesophagus to the anus. 

3. The second brain contains some 100 million neurons, more than in either the spinal cord or the peripheral nervous system.

4. This multitude of neurons in the enteric nervous system enables us to “feel” the inner world of our gut and its contents. 

5. Enteric nervous system contains mass of neural tissue filled with important neurotransmitters. 

6. This reveals that it does much more than merely handling digestion or inflict the occasional nervous pang of hunger. 

7. Enteric nervous system stimulates and coordinates the breaking down of food, absorbing nutrients and expelling of waste. Thus equipped with its own reflexes and senses, the second brain can control several gut functions often independently of the brain. 

8. Several scientists also believe that the enteric nervous system is a way too complicated to have evolved only to make sure things move through and out of our gut smoothly. 

9. Hence we can justify that the enteric nervous system as the second brain of the gut.

Reason : 

1. The enteric nervous system embedded in the walls of the long tube of our gut or alimentary canal control gut functions often independently of the brain. 

2. The mass of neural tissue of enteric nervous system filled with important neurotransmitters reveals that it does much more than merely handle digestion.

The organ systems involved in the digestion of food are:

1. endocrine system, 

2. nervous system, 

3. muscular system, 

4. circulatory system and 

5. excretory system.

Darwin propounded pan genesis theory.

1. What is enteric nervous system? 

2. Why the enteric nervous system is known as second brain? 

3. How nervous system plays an important role in digestion of food? 

4. Which nervous system controls the release of saliva from salivary glands?

5. Which cranial nerve controls the movement of muscles in the jaw? 

6. The mechanism for swallowing is under the control of?

The correct answer is (D) i-d, ii-a, iii-b, iv-c

The correct answer is (C) N

L – Afferent arteriole 

M – Efferent arteriole 

N – Glomerulus 

O – Proximal convoluted tubule 

Blood filtration occurs in glomerulus. Afferent arteriole is the blood vessel leading to glomerulus. Efferent arteriole carries blood away from the glomerulus. Proximal convoluted tubule is involved in reabsorption of useful substances from the filtrate.

Aphids: The insect which feeds on plant juices.

(B) calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate

1. It is the organ transplant of a healthy kidney into a patient with end – stage renal disease.

2. Kidney transplantation is classified as cadaveric (deceased donor) or living donor kidney transplant. 

3. Living donor kidney transplant are further classified as genetically related (living-related) or non-related (living non-related) transplants.

Kidney stones are also called renal calculi. They may be formed in any portion of urinary tract, from kidney tubules to external opening.

Types: 

Depending on their composition, kidney stones are classified into the following types.

1. Calcium stones : These are usually calcium oxalate or calcium phosphate stones. 

2. Struvite stones : These are formed in response to bacterial infection caused by urea – splitting bacteria. They grow in size quickly and become quite large. 

3. Uric acid stones : These stones usually affect people drinking less water or consuming high protein diet. 

4. Cystine stones : It is a genetic disorder that causes the kidney to excrete too much of certain amino acid. 

Symptoms: Intermittent pain below rib cage in back and side ways. Hazy, brownish/reddish/ pinkish urine. Frequent urge to pass urine. Pain during micturition. 

Diagnosis: Uric acid content of blood, colour of urine, kidney X-ray, sonography of kidney are different diagnostic tests prescribed depending on symptoms.

Yes, various organs other than the kidney participate in excretion.

They are as follows: 

i. Skin: 

Skin acts as an accessory excretory organ. The skin of many organisms is thin and permeable. It helps in diffusion of waste products like ammonia. Human skin however is thick and impermeable. It shows presence of two types of glands namely, sweat glands and sebaceous glands. 

a. Sweat glands are distributed all over the skin. They are abundant in the palm and facial regions. These simple, unbranched, coiled, tubular glands open on the surface of the skin through an opening called sweat pore. Sweat is primarily produced for thermoregulation but it also excretes substances like water, NaCl, lactic acid and urea. 

b. Sebaceous glands are present at the neck of hair follicles. They secrete oily substance called sebum. It forms a lubricating layer on skin making it softer. It protects skin from infection and injury. 

ii. Lungs: Lungs are the accessory excretory organs. They help in excretion of volatile substances like CO₂ and water vapour produced during cellular respiration. Along with CO₂ , lungs also remove excess of H₂O in the form of vapours during expiration. They also excrete volatile substances present in spices and other food stuff.

Vibrio are comma shaped bacteria.

A Vaccine is an agent that resembles a disease-causing micro-organism which is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe or its toxins by the immunity is developed against particular disease.

Malaria is caused by Plasmodium.

Cholera can be prevented by 

1. Avoid being close to infected people 

2. Do not touch the nose and eye with contaminated hands.

1. Cholera is caused by vibrio cholera 

2. It is spread through contaminated water and food 

3. The symptoms are vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, stomach pain.

Some micro organisms are harmful too. 

1. They Spoil food 

2. They also cause diseases in plants and animals

1. Influenza is caused by influenza virus 

2. It is spread through Air, Contaminated hand kerchiefs. 

3. The symptoms are, chills, fever, sore, throat, cough, muscle pains, severe headache.

A bacterium is a prokaryotic cell has an outer most layer called cell wall and an inner cell membrane called plasma membrane. Plasma membrane encloses cytoplasm which contain genetic material of a bacterium is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane. There is a layer external to the cell wall called the capsule the capsule will be more thicker if it is pathogenic (disease causing bacteria). In addition the bacterial cells have flagella which help in movement.

A group of viruses which infect bacteria. These are called bacteriophages. Bacteriophage is a virus.

(a) Chlamydomonas

Amoeba is included under the kingdom Protista. It is a protozoan. Amoeba has an external membrane called the cell membrane organelles like mitochondria and vacuole are found in the cytoplasm. The cell membrane allows materials to diffuse in and out of the cell. Amoeba moves with the help of pseudopodia food is digested in the food vacuole contractile vacuole helps in excreting excess water and wastes.

(1) Aspergillus Niger

A bacteriophage has a head region containing the genetic material. The genetic material of a bacteriophage is DNA. The collar region contains protein sheath.

Chlamydomonas is a unicellular free living algae. The cell is oval in shape and surrounded by a definite cell wall made up of cellulose. The cell has a large cup shaped chloroplast the cytoplasm contains the organelle like mitochondria Golgi complex contractile vacuoles etc. It moves with help of flagella.

(c) pseudopodia

(1) Apex consumer 

(2) Primary consumer 

(3) Cyclic 

(4) Decomposers 

(5) Sedimentary cycle 

(6) 78% 

(7) Nitrogen cycle

(8) Nitrogen cycle

(9) abiotic process

(10) Anaerobes

Movement or bending of the shoot towards light is called phototropism.

(a) A growth movement ofa plant part in response to an external stimulus in which the direction of stimulus determines the direction of response is called tropism.

Example – The bending of plant stem towards light is an example of positive phototropism. 

(b) Different types of tropisms are: 

(i)  Phototropism – The movement of a plant part in response to light is called phototropism. Its stimulus is light. 

(ii)  Geotropism – The movement of a plant part in response to gravity is called geotropism. Its stimulus is gravity. 

(iii)  Chemotropism – The movement of a plant part in response to a chemical stimulus is called chemotropism. Its stimulus is chemical. 

(iv)  Hydrotropism – The movement of a plant part in response to a water stimulus is called hydrotropism. Its stimulus is water. 

(v)  Thigmotropism – The movement of a plant part in response to a touch stimulus is called thigmotropism. Its stimulus is touch. 

(c) Tropisms: 

1.  These movements are always in the direction of the stimulus. 

2.  These movements are slow. 

3. These movements are exhibited by all parts of a plant. For example, movement of shoot towards the light and not towards 

Nasties:

1. These movements are neither away nor towards the stimulus. 

2. These movements are fast. 

3. These movements are exhibited by the flat organs (like leaves and petals of flowers) of a plant. For example, the bending and dropping of leaves in ‘Touch-me-not’ plant

The correct option is (1) Xylem.

• The xylem, vessels, and tracheids of the roots, stems, and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels reaching all parts of the plants. 
• The system transports water and soluble mineral nutrients from the roots throughout the plant. 
• Hence, Mineral translocation in plants occurs through Xylem.