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1. Psychology fulfils conditions of science such as acquiring empirical evidence, objectivity, predictability, scientific causality, etc. 

2. Psychology is a social science which deals with human beings. It is not a physical science. 

3. Psychology is defined as the scientific study of human behaviour and mental processes.

4. Psychology uses objective methods like controlled laboratory experiments and aims to establish scientific causality and verifiable theories. 

5. Psychology is not based on folk wisdom, pseudo knowledge or myths. It is based on systematic exploration and acquisition of empirical evidence. 

6. Psychology is a social science so its theories cannot be universal or exact as in the physical science. Human behaviour is constantly evolving and unpredictable.

The systematic observation about a certain problem under controlled laboratory conditions is called an experiment. For example, Albert Bandura conducted experiment to investigate if social behaviours i.e., aggression can be acquired by observation and imitation. 

The steps involved in an experiment are:

1. identifying the problem 

2. formulation a hypothesis 

3. selecting an experimental design 

4. conducting the experiment and data collection 

5. data analysis 

6. drawing conclusions

The key terms of experimental method with examples are:

1. Problem: To study the effect of music on the level of blood Pressure. 

2. Hypothesis: The music will help in regulating the level of blood pressure. 

3. Independent variable: Music. 

4. Dependent variable: Level of blood pressure.

5. Intervening variables: Age, gender, all other sounds other than music, etc. 

6. Experimenter : A person who will be conducting this experiment. (May be you or your psychology teacher.) 

7. Participant : A person on whom this experiment will be conducted. (May be your family member/ friend.)

The two variables in an experiment are: 

1. Independent Variable (I.V.) – It is the variable that the experimenter manipulates or changes systematically to study it’s effect on the D.V. (Cause). 

2. Dependent Variable (D.V.) – the variable that may change due to manipulation of the I.V. (effect). 

The features of the method are: 

1. it is the most objective and scientific method of studying behaviour

2. it helps to establish cause-effect relationship between two or more variables 

3. the findings of an experiment are verifiable

The limitations of the method are: 

1. it may not be possible to control all intervening variables 

2. it has a limited scope, i.e., there may be ethical constraints or risk factors 

3. experimenter’s expectations or participant attitude may influence the conclusions

Psychoanalysis and Behaviourism were the two schools of thought in psychology replaced by Cognitivism during the 1950’s and 1960’s.

According to Rogers, the focus of Humanistic Psychology is the power of free will, self determination and self actualization.

Correct answer is d) Adam Smith

Correct answer is b) Karl Marx

Adam Smith said that individual transactions affect the market system.

These are the different meanings of market:

•  A place for selling and buying things (fruit market, wholesale market). 
• The coming together of people for buying and selling (weekly market). 
• Trade-Business sector (Car market, Ready-made clothes market). 
• Demand for special products or services (market for mobiles phones, market for computer professionals).

The range for coefficient of skewness computed using Karl Pearson’s method for a frequency distribution with unequal class intervals is – 3 to + 3.

Free market means a market which is not controlled in any way by the government or any other agency. This economic vision is called laissez-faire.

To answer this question, we have to look into the England of the 18^th century and the starting of Economics. Economics was then called political economy. Among the early political economists, the most famous was Adam Smith. He is known as the Father of Economics. He published a book called “The Wealth of Nations” in 1776. In his book, Smith tried to understand the market system that started at that time.

Smith argued that economic system is made by individual transactions, like a series of buying and selling. It slowly becomes a self-working, orderly system. Market system is not something anybody deliberately creates. The millions of people that made transactions did not have any intention to create a market system. Each individual looks at his personal interest or gain.

When we try for our personal interests, automatically the interests of the society get protected. In other words, what individuals do for their benefit will prove beneficial to the society as a whole. Smith argued that this is brought about by an invisible power. He called this invisible power as “invisible hand”. In his opinion, the capitalist economy is propelled forward by the selfish interests of individuals. It is when buyers and sellers take rational decisions, protecting their interests that the capitalist economy goes forward smoothly.

Smith used the concept of ‘Invisible Hand’ to argue that when people pursue their selfish interests in the market, it proves beneficial to the Society. When they work for their personal interests, it awakens the economy and that way more wealth is produced. Because of this Smith supported the idea of free market. Free market means a market without controls from the government or any other agency. This idea is called laissez-faire. It is a French word. It means leave something alone to do its work.

It is from the ideas presented by early political economists like Adam Smith, modern Economics is developed. Modern economics says that the system of wealth should be studied as a separate part of the society. Economic system works with its own principles. It does not worry about the social and political background. But sociologists had an entirely different viewpoint. They tried to study economics within the larger sociological framework. Thus they developed an alternative method for studying economic institutions.

Sociologists look at markets as social institutions. They observe that markets are formed through special cultural ways. For example, markets are organized and controlled by special social classes. They have special relations with other institutions, social processes and structures.

Sociologists say that wealth systems are set in the society. They point out two examples. One is the weekly market of the Tribal Groups, and the second is the traditional business community and its business chains in colonial India.

The main aim of economics is to understand and explain how markets work in the modem capitalist economy. For example, how are prices determined? What are the benefits of certain kinds of investment? What are the factors that make people earn money and spend it? All these questions are answered by economics. Here the question is what contribution the sociologist can make in the study of markets. Sociology tries to go beyond the things that economics tells us. That means, Sociology tells us things about the market which Economics does not tell us. Sociology looks at the changes markets bring in the society.

Studies show that with the coming of Colonialism, the unchanging economic system of India began o crumble. With the establishment of colonial rule, a new economic system came up in money, market and trade. It even penetrated the local agricultural economy. Gradually this agricultural economy became part of a wide exchange chain. With this, self-sufficient villages collapsed.

The old studies say that the coming of the colonial rule brought revolutionary changes in the village and urban communities of India. But modern studies do not support this view. The old studies say that before the colonial rule, the Indian economy was immobile. It was self-sufficient. There, exchanges (barters) took place without any interference of market forces. Economy based on money was not there.

All these arguments were denied by the new studies conducted by Bailey, Burton Stein and Sanjay Subramanian. New studies point out that just before the colonial rule, the system of collecting taxes in cash was started in India. Trade was also done using money. There is no doubt that in many villages of India there still was the barter system as found in the Jajmani system. At the same time, many agricultural products and other goods were also sold for cash in the markets. Recent researches show that extensive trade and business chains were in existence in India before the colonial rule.

Weekly markets are a central feature of the social and economic activities of agricultural communities. Weekly markets bring people from different villages together. They sell their products and buy those things that are not available in their own villages. Traders from outside, money lenders, artist of various kinds, fortune tellers and such other people also came to the weekly markets with their own purposes. In the Indian villages, there are also special markets at fixed short-term intervals. For example, there are the cattle markets. Such markets bring the economic systems of different places together. They thus get connected to the urban economy and finally to the national economy.

correct answer is d) Adam Smith

Answer is (b) Experimental

Here r = – 1 because the value of x and y variables move in the opposite direction.

Correlation between two variables concentrate between + 1 and – 1.

Here r = + 1 as values of X and variables move in the same direction.

Negative relation between two variables.

Correct answer is b) Political Economy

The presence of correlation between variables X and Y simply means that when value of one variables is found to change in one direction the value of other variables is found to change either in the same direction or in the opposite direction but indefinite way.

Spearman’s rank correlation is not as accurate as the ordinary method this is due to fact that all the information concerning the data is not utilised.

The use of rank correlation is suitable when data cannot be directly quantitatively measured.

Rank correlation method is used for the variable whose quantitative measurement is not possible such as beauty, bravery or wisdom.

Rank correlation is preferred to Person’s coefficient when extreme values are present.

No. ‘r ’ cannot lie outside -1 and +1 range depending on the types of data, it lies between minus one and plus one symbolically -1 if in any excercise ‘r ’ is outside this range it indicates error in calculation.

No correlation does not imply causation it implies covariation it should never be interpreted as implying causes and effect relation.

1. An aerial photograph and a plan — A plan is a drawing that shows the horizontal section of a small area or a building. It is drawn to scale. It is useful because it tells us where exactly things are on the ground. Aerial photographs is a tool for representing the earth or a part of it is aerial photography. Photographs of the earth are taken from a camera mounted on an aircraft, an unmanned drone or an artificial satellite. In fact, such photographs have been used widely in the preparation of accurate maps. 

2. A globe and an atlas — Map : a drawing of the whole earth or a part of it on a flat surface. 

3. Asketch and a map — Arough drawing showing the relative locations of a few chosen features in an area. A map — A drawing of the who le earth or a part of it on a flat surface.

3. aerial photographs

 The relative locations of a few features of an area sketch.

Thematic maps shows the distribution of forests, crops, minerals and industries.

The types of Thematic maps are :

1. Ranged maps.

2. Point density maps

3. Proportional symbol maps

4. Maps with pie or bar charts.

5. Grided maps.

The other two maps are :

1. Political maps shows the boundaries of administrative units such as countries, states and districts. Different types of boundaries are shown with different symbols. They also show the locations of cities, towns and villages.

2. Physical maps show the landforms and water bodies on the Earth’s surface, such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, lakes and seas. The different features are shown with different colours.

Advantages :

•  It is the most accurate three dimensional representation of the earth.
•  It shows the distribution of continents and oceans accurately.
• Lines of latitude and longitude are marked on a globe.

Disadvantages :

• Only a part of the earth can be seen on a globe, at one glance.
• All details cannot be marked on a globe.
• A globe is difficult to carry around.

3. topographic

Registered partnership firm:

• A partnership which is registered with the Registrar of Firms is called a registered partnership firm. It is not compulsory to register a partnership firm but it is advisable to do so.
• A registered firm can go to court of law to solve disputes and to recover debts from a third party/person.

A partnership which is registered with the Registrar of Firms is called a registered partnership firm.

As per the Partnership Act, 1932, the partners need to fill a registration form, sign it and submit it along with the registration fees at the office of the Registrar of Firms. The registrar than studies the documents and form submitted by the partners and registers it.

A partnership firm which is not registered with the Registrar of Firms is called an unregistered partnership firm.

Correct option is (a) Planned change

Following are the functions of management:

a. Planning: Planning refers to thinking before hand. Under this it is decided—what is to be done, how it is to be done, when it is to be done and by whom it is to be done.

b. Organising: Organising refers to harmonious adjustment of various elements to achieve common objectives. It involves determining activities needed to achieve the objectives, grouping these activities into departments, assigning such group of activities to managers and defining the interrelationship among various posts so that ambiguity in performance of duties can be eliminated.

c. Staffing: Staffing refers to filling and keeping filled the posts with people. It ensures that competent persons are appointed. The chief activities undertaken in it are recruitment, selection, training, promotion, transfer, etc.

d. Directing: Directing refers to instructing, guiding, communicating and inspiring people in the organisation. It includes the following four activities:

i. Supervision: It refers to monitoring the progress of work of one’s subordinates and guiding them properly.

ii. Communication: It refers to an art of transferring facts, ideas, feelings, etc. from one person to another and making him understand them.

iii. Leadership: It refers to influencing others in such a manner to do what the leader wants them to do.

iv. Motivation: It refers to that process which excites people to work for the attainment of a desired objective.

e. Controlling: Controlling refers to bringing the actual results closer to the desired results. Under controlling, deviations are sought to be noticed in the actual work progress and the standards already determined, the causes of deviations are found out and corrective action is taken so that in future the mistakes are not repeated.

Following are the various functions of Lower Level Managers:

i. Submitting Workers’ Grievances: Lower level managers are in direct contact with the workmen employees. They themselves sort out the ordinary problems of workmen and submit serious workers’ grievances to middle level managers.

ii. Ensuring Proper Working Environment: Lower level managers ensure that proper arrangement of water, electricity, ventilation, cleanliness, etc. is made at the workplace. This increases efficiency.

iii. Ensuring Safety of Workers: Probability to accidents can be annuled by building fences around machines.

iv. Helping Middle Level Management: They help middle level managers in recruiting, training and promoting employees.

v. Inviting Suggestions: They invite suggestions from their subordinates, as to how the quality of work can be improved.

(i) The name of this principle of management is ‘Discipline’. Discipline is essential for any successful work performance. Fayol considers discipline to mean obedience, respect for authority, and observance of established rules. Discipline can be established by providing good supervision at all levels, clearly explaining the rules, and implementing a system of reward and punishment. A manager can present a good example to his subordinates by disciplining himself.

(ii) The name of this technique of scientific management is ‘Standardisation of Work’. Standardisation means setting standards for different factors, after due deliberation. For example, the amount of work to be done by a worker in a day may be standardised. In other words, the worker is expected to do the standard amount of work everyday. In the same manner standards may also be set for raw materials, machines and tools, techniques, conditions of work, etc.

Correct option is (d) Stability of Personnel

(i) Principle of Authority and Responsibility and principle of Unity of Command are being violated here.

(ii) Following steps can be taken to overcome the problem:

(a) The promoters should define their areas of authority clearly based on functions performed by them.

(b) The promoters should issue orders in their specific areas only to avoid confusions.

(a) That prevents dual subordination: Unity of Command.

(b) That prevents overlapping of working of two divisions: Division of Work.

Correct option is (c) Economics

Unity of Direction

Unity of Command

Co-ordination