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The Principal 

St. Xaviers School 

Kasauli 

Subject: Request to start a new club in school 

Sir 

All the students of the school feel proud of the excellent functioning of the so many clubs in the school. These clubs are providing great opportunities to the students in their all round development of personality. At the same time it is commonly felt that there is no Health Club in our school. I approach you with an earnest request to start the Health Club in the school at the earliest for the benefit of all the students. The cost of opening this club will be much less in proportion to the overall benefits that will accrue to one and all. 

The Health Club will cater to the physical and psychological needs of the students who love to lead tension free healthy life and pursue their studies more wholeheartedly and devotedly. The Health Club to be headed by a young science teacher will work under your patronage and guide the students what to do to keep themselves disease free. The students need guidance on essential food items to be included in their diet. A yoga instructor should be engaged to instruct the students on the benefits of , yoga and meditation. Some tips from him on taking home madepotions will keep them in proper physical shape and strength. 

Sir, I am hopeful that you will consider my proposal and take the earliest steps to start the Health Club to ensure healthy mind in healthy body. With regards 

Yours sincerely Lokesh 

(Class XII A, Roll No 15)

45 Nirmal Colony 

Tilak Road 

Karnal 

5 January 20…. 

Dear Mukesh 

I have just received your letter expressing your great dissatisfaction with your performance in the Second Terminal Examination held in December. Your disappointment though quite genuine, is misplaced as I am aware you had not been keeping good health for the last few months. You were also burdened with the responsibility of looking after your ailing mother. Naturally, you did not have sufficient time and energy to attend to your studies. Under the circumstance you need not underestimate your capabilities and intelligence. 

Mukesh dear, you must recall how brilliant your career had been throughout. In your class-X examination you had a creditable score. Even now you need not feel worried about the final examination. I am confident of your stamina for work with which to make up for the loss in studies. With your improved health and your mother in a position to attend to herself you will be able to put your heart and soul in your studies and do much better in the final examination. 

Dear Mukesh, all is not lost. Look forward to your bright future awaiting you. You may seek help of your close meritorious friends and seek guidance and certain important topics. Prepare your subjects intelligently without resorting to cramming. Go out for a morning walk daily to keep yourself physically fit and mentally sound. I am always ready to render any help you may need. I would like to visit you shortly and help you make plans for intensive preparations for the final examination. Till then stay tension free and in high spirits. Looking forward to seeing you soon. 

Yours sincerely 

Raju

Five ways Society benefits from Advertising are: 

1. Generates employment: Advertising provides direct employment to a large number of people engaged in designing, writing, and issuing advertisements. Indirectly, advertising increases employment opportunities by increasing the volume of production and distribution. 

2. Standard of living: Advertising improves the standard of living of the people by promoting variety and quality in consumption. It educates people about new uses of products and provides information for developing better ways of life. To quote Franklin D. Roosevelt, the late President of America, “advertising brings to the greatest number of people actual knowledge concerning useful things, it is essentially a form of education and the progress of civilization depends on education.” 

3. Sustains the press: Advertising provides an important source of revenue to newspapers, magazines, radio and television. As a result public gets news at lower rates and the circulation of newspapers and magazines increases. Press is the guardian of public opinion and by helping it to remain independent, advertising promotes liberty and democracy in the country. 

4. Stimulates research and development: Advertising can be successful only when it is backed by new and better products. To derive maximum benefit from advertising in the competitive market, every producer tries to differentiate his products from the competitive products. Big business firms have research and development departments to develop new products and new uses. 

5. Incentive to progress: Advertising motivates people to work hard and earn more to buy new and better products. According to Sir Winston Churchil, “Advertising nourishes the consuming power of man. It creates a desire for better standard of living. It spurs individual exertion and greater production.”

(a) Fixed cost: Fixed costs are those costs which remain fixed in amount irrespective of changes in the volume of output during a given period of time. Such costs do not change with changes (increase or decrease) in the level of activity upto a certain limit. For Example: A sugar mill wholly remains closed for about three months during a year due to non availability of raw material (sugar-cane). But the mill-owner has to incur certain costs like the rent of factory building, factory manager’s salary, insurance premiums and municipal taxes. These costs are called fixed costs or supplementary costs or overhead costs. They remain the same irrespective of quantity of production during the short period. Fixed cost line is parallel to X axis indicating that the fixed costs remain constant. 

(b) Variable Cost: Variable costs are those costs which vary in amount which changes in the level of output or activity. Such costs increase and decrease in same proportion in which the level of output increases or decreases. Variable costs vary in total amount but remain constant per unit production. 

For example: When the level of output increases from 3,000 units to 4,000 units, the amount of variable costs increase from Rs. 15,000 to 20,000. In this case, the variable cost per unit remains unchanged at Rs. 5 (15,000 ÷ 3,000 and 20,000 ÷ 4,000). Thus, there js a linear relationship between volume of production and total variable costs. 

Semi-Variable Cost: Semi variable costs are those costs which vary but not in direct proportion to changes in the volume of production. They are a combination of fixed and variable costs. Such costs are neither perfectly fixed nor absolutely variable. 

For example: Telephone charges – Rent remains fixed whereas the charges for calls made during a month are variable. 

(c) First two stages of Product Life Cycle: 

1. Introduction: In this stage, the new product will be launched in the market. Cost incurred in launching the product will be high and sales may be low. Since the product is of a new variety, competition is virtually absent, market is limited and prices are relatively high. This stage is also very risky because a high percentage of new products fail during this period. Effective strategies like introductory offer, money-back guarantee, removing technical mid other deficiencies etc., may be employed. 

2. Growth: In this stage, Demand and Sales increase and competitors enter the market. Having covered its research and development costs the product becomes profitable. In this stage, promotional focus shifts from “buy my product to buy my brand”. Strategies like heavy advertising, expanding distribution channels and keeping the price at competitive levels may be employed.

External Sources of Recruitment: External sources of recruitment means recruitment of employees from the sources outside the organisation. External sources of recruitment are given below: 

1. Advertisements: Advertisements in newspapers and journals are the most widely used method of attracting candidates for all types of jobs. Advertisements bring in a large number of applications due to wide circulation of a national newspaper. This method is convenient and economical also. 

2. Placement Agencies: Private employment agencies advertise the vacancies, receive applications, conduct interviews and short-list candidates on behalf of employers. These agencies have become a popular source for recruiting managerial and technical personnel. 

3. Employment Exchanges: Employment exchanges run by the Government are another external source of recruitment. Anyone seeking employment can get himself registered with the employment exchange. Employers notify job vacancies to employment exchanges. The exchange supplies a list of candidates to fulfil required qualifications. 

4. Gate Hiring: Small firms make recruitment at the factory gate. Workers gather at the factory gate after reading the notice of vacancies. The suitable candidates are selected. This method is used to fill temporary and casual vacancies. 

5. Unsolicited Applicants: Persons in search of employment visit offices of companies. They carry their resume and certificates. A record of such candidates may be maintained and they may be considered if there is a vacancy. Unsolicited applicants are also known as casual callers. 

6. Educational Institutions: Representatives of companies hold interviews in educational institutions and select the qualified students. This source is also known as campus recruitment. It is suitable for recruiting engineers, computer experts and managers. 

7. Jobbers mid Contractors: When workers are to be hired at a short notice and without going through the usual selection procedure, jobbers and contractors serve as a useful source of recruitment. 

8. Recommendations: Applicants introduced by friends and relatives can be a source of recruitment. When an existing employee or a business friend recommends a person, a sort of preliminary screening takes place.

‘Empathy’: Empathy means looking at things and events from the other’s point of view. It requires that the communicator be in tune with the communicate. The former should understand the attitude of the latter. For, example, a good speaker should know the emotions and sentiments of his audience. Put yourself in the shoes of the listener before you speak. Empathy involves seeing and feeling matters as others see and feel. It enables an executive to be sensitive with problems of his workers arid clients. A person with empathy can be receptive and appreciative of the ideas and opinions of others. Public relations managers and executives must acquire and master the art of empathy. This requires planned practice, experience and experimentation. Empathy is different from sympathy. 

‘Dialogue’: Dialogue means a conversation between two persons with a purpose. If a person goes on talking without allowing other to participate in the discussion or talk, then it is a monologue. In a civilised society, dialogue is the only weapon of reasoning and understanding. Democracy and freedom cannot survive without discussion and debate. In a dialogue each person presents facts and views and considers the fact and views presented by others. It is a reasonable exchange of ideas and opinions. Dialogue reveals the true personality of a person. It helps to reduce prejudice and builds up mutual confidence. Effective dialogue requires impartial listening and understanding. A good way to start a dialogue is by asking questions and listening to the answers. Dialogue requires a topic about which the participants are informed and to which all can make a contribution by original thinking and discussion.

Objective of Consumer Education: Consumer education mainly aims at making consumers aware about what, where, when, how and how much to buy. It develops critical awareness and living skills which are oriented towards building a better future for all. Consumer education assists the buyer in wise selection of goods to meet family requirements. Consumer education is extremely important for every individual. This awareness safeguards the consumer interests for better living. 

Consumer education enables an individual to : 

• Have proper knowledge and information as regards the items/services needed in day-to-day life. 

• Make better use of their money thus improving the standard of living. 

• Make intelligent choices and be better prepared for everyday living. 

• Derive maximum satisfaction from the product or item or service used.

Consumer Rights: 

1. Right to choose: It means right to be assured, wherever possible the access to variety of goods and services at competitive price, satisfactory quality and service at a fair price. 

2. Right to safety: It means right to be protected against the marketing of goods and services, which are hazardous to life and the product not only meets their immediate needs but also fulfills long term interests. 

3. Right to be informed or information: It means right to be informed about the quality, quantity, potency, purity, standard and price of goods so as the consumer should insist on getting all the information about the product or services before making a choice. 

4. Right to Redress : It means right to seek redressal against unfair trade practices or unscrupluous exploitation of consumers. 

5. Right to be Heard : It means that consumer interests will receive due considerations at appropriate forums. It also includes consumer welfare.

The Consumer Protection Act provides for the following rights of consumer: 

1. The right of safety: This is the right to be protected against the marketing of goods which are hazardous to life and property. There are various risks involved in the consumption and use of products, such as food, drugs, toys, electrical appliances, etc. For example, gas cylinder, if not sealed properly may cause injury or even death. The consumers have the right to get protection against such risks. 

2. The right to choose: The consumer should be assured access to a variety of goods at competitive prices. This means the seller should not use aggressive selling techniques to sell the product to the consumer. There should be freedom to choose from alternative products. This requires free competition in the market. If enough varieties of products at competitive prices are available in the market, consumers have the opportunity to make a free choice. 

3. The right to be informed: The consumer has the right to be informed about the quality, potency, purity, standard and price of the goods he intends to pinchase. 

4. The right to be heard: The consumer has a right to register his dissatisfaction and get his complaint heard at appropriate forums. This right includes the right to make protest. The above three rights are meaningless without the right to be heard. Therefore, grievances and claims of consumers must be heard and considered. 

5. The right to seek redressal: It means the right to get claims and complaints settled against manufacturers or sellers due to unfair trade practices and exploitation by them. The consumer has been granted the right of redress if the performance, quality, etc., of a product is unsatisfactory. The product must be repaired, replaced of taken back by the seller. The right to seek redressal will reduce post-purchase doubts and grievances of consumers.

Consumer Rights: 

1. The Right to Safety: This right protects the consumers against the sale of goods which are hazardous to life and property. e.g. Electrical appliances, Gas cylinders etc. Consumers must have assurance regarding quality, reliability and safety of the products. 

2. The Right to be informed: The consumer must have the right to be informed about the full details of the product regarding its quality, price etc. This protects the consumers from deceptive advertising, inflated price etc. 

3. The Right to Choose: According to this right the consumer should be free to choose from alternative products, through free competition. 

4. The Right to be heard: The consumer is free to register his complaint regarding the product at appropriate forums. 

5. The Right to Consumer Education: According to this right, the consumer should be made aware of his rights and remedies available under the law.

Types of training are : 

Films : It helps to provide information and demonstrate skills that cannot be easily presented in lectures. Films in conjunction with conference can be a very effective method.

Vestibule Training: Employees learn their jobs on the equipment’s which they will be using while doing the actual job. This method is costly and it is used in case of sophisticated machinery and equipment.

Lectures : This method is used to convey specific information, rules and procedures. Audio-visuals are used to make lectures more interesting.

Procedure for Opening a Saving Bank Account: 

1. Application in the Prescribed Form: These forms are provided by banks for opening different types of accounts. In these the person willing to open an account should furnish full details about his name, occupation, permanent and official address, specimen signature etc. 

2. Introduction of the Applicant: Introduction of the applicant by an existing account holder in the bank to ensure the identity of the applicant. Existing account holder needs sign the application form itself and to write his full name. 

3. Specimen Signature: After filling the prescribed form issued by the bank and introduction given by a current account holder, the applicant is required to give his four signatures on a prescribed card. This enables to bank to verify the signature of the account holder with the signature on the cheque issued by him. 

4. Photograph: In order to avoid various frauds due to fake identity the banks require photographs of the applicant to be affixed on signature card. 

5. Initial Deposit: It is the minimum amount which the applicant must deposit, to activate his newly opened account. After opening an account, the bank provides the passbook, chequebook and pay-in-slips to account holder.

(a) Labelling gives definiteness to the product and therefore identification of a product is easy. 

(b) It stresses the standard and other special features of the product which are advertised. 

(c) It enables to give clear instructions to the consumer as to the proper use of a product.

Stability of Tenure: According to Fayol. “Employee turnover should be minimized to maintain organisational efficiency”. Stability of tenure helps to develop loyalty and attachment on the part of employees. 

If an employee receives transfer order by the time he learns and gets settled in a job it will be leading to wastage of resources.

Discipline : Discipline implies obedience, respect of authority and observance of the established rules and regulations. To achieve proper discipline, skilled superiors at all levels, clear and fair agreements and judicious application of penalities etc. are required.

Unity of Command : According to this principle, an individual employee should have only one superior from whom he should receive orders and to whom he should be responsible. If a subordinate has more than one boss, dual command will undermine authority’, weaken discipline, divide loyalty and create confusion, delays etc.

Unity of Direction : According to this principle, activities having the common goal must have one head and one plan. Each group of activities with the same objective must have one plan of action and must be under the control of one superior.

Order: According to Fayol. “People and material must be in suitable places at appropriate time for maximum efficiency “.

The order can be of two types : 

1. Material Order: It implies a proper place for everything and everything in its right place. 

2. Social Order: Arrangement of people is referred to as social order.

The economic environment of business has reference to the broad characteristics of the economic system in which the business firm operates. The economic environment of the country includes economic system, macroeconomic parameters, and stages of the business cycle, financial system and economic policies of the government.

The non-economic environment includes political system, government policies, legal framework social system, cultural values, demographic factors, technological development and natural environment of the country.

The non-economic environment exercises a strong influence on the business. Normally the non-economic environmental factors are the key factors for all kinds of business activities in India.

Management as a group refers to all those persons who perform the task of managing an enterprise. As a group, management will include all managers from the chief executive to the first-line managers (lower-level managers). But in common practice management includes only top management i.e. Chief Executive, Chairman, General Manager, Board of Directors etc. In other words, those who are concerned with making important decisions, these persons enjoy the authorities to use resources to accomplish organizational objectives & also a responsibility for their efficient utilization.

(a) No Procedural Delays 

(b) Easy availability of finance.

Four powers of a chairman presiding over a meeting are : 

• To conduct the proceeding of the meeting according to the rules and regulations. 

• To expel any unruly and adament members and get him ejected. 

• To decide on the priority of speakers. 

• To decide points of order regarding validity of the procedure and give his ruling which is final. 

Four duties of a chairman presiding over a meeting are : 

1. He must make it certain that the meeting is summoned and constituted in the right way. 

2. He must make it certain that the business done at the meetings are properly managed. 

3. He must make it certain that the provision of the Act and Articles are followed. 

4. He must ensure that the meeting is not unruly.

Role of parents in guiding adolescents are: 

1. Parents should spare sufficient time to listen to and try to understand the adolescent’s fears and concerns. 

2. They should be positive in their approach and communication by giving friendly advice. 

3. They should accept and respect the adolescent. 

4. They need to be sensitive and responsive to siblings of different ages and genders, including adolescents. 

5. They should give directions or suggestions in a positive way, so that the adolescents do not need to decipher information from wrong sources.

Dehydration of food is a very common method. This method is used for drying the moisture content in the food products. Because this moisture content helps the microorganisms to grow. Such microorganisms spoil the food. Sun drying is a very basic method of dehydration. But there are also many artificial methods of drying. Hot air is also used to dry the food products. dehydration process is commonly used for fruits, salad, vegetable, in pickle preparation etc.

Responsibilities of consumers : 

1. After any purchase consumer should get the bill. 

2. While buying goods always check the ISI mark. 

3. Always read the instructions carefully. 

4. Use rights of the consumers. 

5. Always buy quality things and goods. Never buy a good whose brand name gets same with those brand which already exist in the market. So a consumer should be aware.

Toxic dyes in food can cause health problems like: 

1. Nausea, vomiting and stomach discomfort 

2. Low blood pressure 

3. Difficulty in breathing, swelling and rashes on skin 

4. Kidney disorders 

5. Cancer

At times, the prices of commodities are higher at a certain shop due to the factors like high operational costs, high marketing and advertisement costs, the shop being a prestigious departmental store, availability of goods that are otherwise not easily available and involvement of middlemen in their distribution channel.

To prevent suffocation and choking in kids, 

following measures should be taken : 

1. Small objects, electric cords, magnets, small toys like dice, jewellery, plastic bags and other similar items should be kept out of reach of kids. 

2. The mattress and sheets in the crib should be tightly secured to avoid suffocation as they might roll over at night. 

3. Keep stuffed and soft toys away from the child, once he/she is asleep. 

4. Food should be cut in to small pieces. Foods that are consumed whole like popcorn, grapes, berries, etc. should be given only under the supervision of elders. 

5. Drinking water should be given only in sipper bottles, until the age of 5 years.

The five advantages of packaged goods over loose commodities are: 

The packaging keeps the product clean and adulteration is almost impossible in packaged goods. On the other hand, loose sold products can easily get contaminated and adulterated. 

Consumer can know the maximum retail price mentioned on label and the seller cannot change the cost of commodity to cheat the consumer. 

The weight of packaged goods remains intact and the seller cannot cheat the consumer by giving lesser quantity. 

The labels on package contain important information like ‘expiry date’, ‘how to use’, and other instructions for safety of the consumer. This is unavailable in loosely sold commodities. 

Packaging prevents the goods from damage during transport and storage.

Five basic responsibilities of a consumer or pilferage: 

Use the product as instructed. For this, one has to read the instructions given in the manual or on the label carefully. Carelessness or ignorance can be dangerous to consumers, for which the manufacturer/seller is not responsible. 

The proof of purchase and cash memo or invoice should be safely retained to make a claim on the seller/manufacturer. 

The claim can be made only for the product and service in warranty or guarantee period. Unreasonable claims should be avoided by the consumer. 

The bank account details should be kept confidential by all consumers. 

Any unauthorized transactions should be immediately reported to the bank and police.

As teenagers spend a lot of time of their day in school and are going through a period of changes, school plays an important role in then- social and emotional development. Peer groups, friends and teachers affect a teenager’s mindset, mood and attitude. Bullying friends and harsh teachers that embarrass or humiliate the teenager can give a negative push to his/her sensitive emotional state. Whereas, a positive and energetic surrounding in school can boost a teenager to a healthy emotional and social development. The basic social interactions are unavoidable at schools and the teenager learns to take initiative and make friends.

Physical exercise is very important for us to remain healthy and fit. Exercise play a very important role in our fife. It keeps us fresh and active. 

Advantages of Physical exercise : 

• It keeps us fresh and active throughout the day. 

• Also helps in growth and development. 

• Improve our working ability. 

• Activate our immune system. 

• Helps in proper blood circulation throughout the body. 

• Also improves our digestive system. 

• Provide us energy. 

• Protect us from diseases.

The five factors that influence adolescents’ career choice are: 

1. Personal factors : Interest, talent and marks scored. 

2. Peer group and social factors : Career selected by friends and other young people. 

3. Family and social influence : Role of parents, teachers and society, their encouragement to the child for a specific career choice. 

4. Economic factors: Affordability of a specific educational facility. 

5. Availability of a specific educational choice : Available of course in the suitable place or availability of migration to the required place for study of the desired career/course.

Physical exercise is considered important for maintaining physical fitness including weight building and maintaining healthy bones, muscles, and joints, promoting physiological well-being, reducing surgical risks and strengthening the immune system. While exercising, it is important to have a good diet to ensure that body has the proper ratio of macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients. 

This is to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise because when the body falls short of proper nutrition, it gets into starvation mode and depends onto the fat content for survival. Like exercise, proper rest and recovery is also important for health, otherwise the body exists in a permanently injured state and will not improve or adapt adequately to the exercise.

Five causes of delinquency among adolescents (juvenile crime) are : 

1. Use of substances such as drugs and alcohol. 

2. Wrong ways of parenting like harsh and abusive ways of punishment. 

3. Incorrect selection of friends and peers, resulting in unwanted, irresistible reasons to commit crime. 

4. Social labelling at young age can lead to personality changes and biases. 

5. Economic and social complications leading to forced crime commitment.

(a) Outsourcing is cost effective to a firm. 

(b) Outsourcing can promote efficiency. It can be a good option when the functions of an office are complicated. 

(c) Outsourcing offers staffing flexibility.

Adolescence is a short period of dramatic physical, mental and emotional development. For few, the switching to adulthood is an easy transition, while for most, it is a period of stress. 

Various factors that lead to stress in adolescents are: 

Physical changes : They undergo many important physical changes in their bodies. The rapid growth in the body can lead to nutritional deficiencies if balanced diet is not taken. Teens must accept the changes as they develop mentally, physically and emotionally. 

Social pressure : Social pressure is another common cause of stress for adolescents. Most of the teens try to fit in the friends group around them and under peer pressure they struggle a lot to socialize with their friends and classmates in order to win their approval. They might also fall under the trap of peer pressure or social pressure and end up indulging in activities such as drinking alcohol, smoking, consuming drugs, etc., just to be accepted in the society. 

Academic burden : School and academic concern are the biggest cause of creating stress for.most of the adolescents. The academic work pressure such as completion of homework, scoring well in examinations, participating in co-curricular activities and sports are the greatest causes of stress for teens. They might also feel stressed due to parental expectation of high scores. 

Family environment : Family issues such as unhealthy environment within the family, domestic violence, parents separating or divorcing, death or illness in the family can cause more stress in the teen’s life. Lack of understanding between siblings or parents contributes to increased stress levels. 

Peer Pressure : Adolescents may have a big group of friends still they undertake a lot of stress which causes a negative effect on them. Popularity is important for them and a lack of it can create feelings of loneliness and depression.

Healthy diet and happy environment can be provided to the elderly to make their life easy.

Safety measures for the elderly are : 

1. As the vision depletes in old age, the house should be well lit to prevent accidents. 

2. Grab bars and railings for support while climbing stairs. If possible, install a lift or a ramp as climbing is difficult. 

3. Do not leave them unattended or alone outside the house, as they can stumble on uneven footpaths or loose pavements. 

4. Ensure that washrooms are dry so that they do not slip and fall. 

5. Keep things they require at fixed places. 

6. Be a part of their financial world, as they might be cheated or at a risk of fraud. 

7. Ensure medical insurance for them.

For increasing the life expectancy, one should regularly indulge himself in physical activities such as brisk walking, yoga or exercise, Eat a healthy and a balanced diet, quit smoking and alcohol and stay happy and . optimistic.

The main objective of meal planning is to create a ‘Balanced Diet’ for a family so that it can get as much nutrients as possible. The meal is planned to provide the necessary nutrients is within the budget

The main objective of meal planning is to create a ‘Balanced Diet’ for a family so that it can get as much nutrients as possible. The meal is planned to provide the necessary nutrients is within the budget

Impact of skipping meals on the health of an individual: 

• Skipping meals makes the individual dull, both mentally and physically. 

• It reduces the overall working ability and stamina of the individual. 

• Due to the essential need of energy in the human body, skipping meals can also cause diabetes and many such health-related issues. 

• Diseases such as anaemia, weakening of bones, low immunity and deteriorating dental health are all results of skipping meals. 

• Having just a meal a day results in burning fewer calories than required in the human body per day which may cause internal malfunctioning of the body.

(a) Products at competitive price are available on e-business platforms. 

(b) A buyer can order for the product any time (24 × 7 basis). 

(c) Products are delivered at doorsteps of the buyers.

Two ways to increase life expectancy among elderlies are: 

• Healthcare by regular exercise, monitoring and controlling the prevalent conditions, taking multivitamin and antioxidant supplements and regular health check-ups can be helpful. 

• Building a positive and happy environment around the elderly, increasing social interaction and- acceptance can help protect their social, mental and emotional well-being, leading to longer lifespan.

There are three stages of cognitive development during adolescence: 

First stage is the Early adolescence. In this stage, thinking becomes more complex with reasoning and is focused on personal decision making in all aspects, like home, play and school. 

Second stage is Middle adolescence in which complex thinking process as well as experience makes the adolescent more concerned about abstract issues like the philosophical and futuristic ones. 

The third stage is the Late adolescence where complex thinking processes are focused on self centered concepts and decision making again, but with increased thoughts about global concepts like justice, history, politics, and patriotism.

The money available decides what is purchased for the family. When the budget available per day is low, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of less-expensive food, which has high nutritive value.

Few points by which a meal is made economical are :

• Plan the meal for several days or at least for a week. 

• Make an accurate shopping list, including quantity and quality of goods you need, also check supplies in stock. 

• Purchase from market after comparing prices. 

• Seasonal food can be preferred as it is cheaper and has immediate nutritional value. 

• Choose food from each food group which has low cost but same nutritive value. 

• Avoid wastage of food, whether it is raw or cooked. It adversely affects the economy. 

• Avoid ‘impulsive buying’ as it is hazardous for your budget. 

• Meals cooked at home are cheaper, healthier and better than that brought from the market. 

• If possible, grow fruits and vegetables in your own garden. 

• Menu adjustment saves time, money and energy.

Gratuity is a monetary benefit given by the employer to his employee at the time of retirement. It is a defined benefit plan where no contributions are made by the employee.

Two metal contaminants are : 

• Lead 

• Arsenic.

One difference between bactericidal and bacteriostatic methods of food preservation is Bactericidal method kills the bacterial cells and prevents any further growth whereas bacteriostatic method prevents the growth (multiplication) of existing bacterial cells.

Fiber rich and spicy foods should be avoided during diarrhea.

Dehydration is a modern development of smoking and drying, the process is quickened by using a heated oven with a pressure lower than the atmospheric pressure, which prevents the food from spoiling. It is a method of food preservation in which food is dried (dehydrated or desiccated). Drying inhibits the growth of bacteria, yeast and mould through the removal of water. Different kinds of food can be prepared by dehydration. Fruits change characteristics when dried completely. 

Plum becomes a prune, the grape a raisin when dries. Figs and dates are also transformed into new, different products that can either be eaten as they are or rehydrated. Home drying of vegetables, fruit and meat can be carried out with electrical dehydrators (household appliance) or by sun-drying. Industrial food dehydration is often accomplished by freeze drying. In this case, food is flash frozen and put into a reduced-pressure system which causes the water to sublimate directly from the solid to the gaseous phase. Although freeze¬drying is more expensive than traditional dehydration techniques, it also mitigates the change in flavour, texture and nutritional value. 

Chemical food preservatives are applied to foods as direct additives during processing or they themselves develop it during processes such as fermentation. Certain preservatives have been used for centuries and include sodium chloride (common salt), sugar, acids, alcohols and components of smoke. In addition to preservation, these compounds contribute to the quality and identity of the product and are applied through processing procedures such as salting, curing, fermentation and smoking. Two of the chemicals allowed for preservation are sulphur dioxide and benzoic acid. Both of these substances prevent bacterial activity. 

The amount of preservative that can be added to the foodstuff is strictly controlled by law. For domestic use, potassium meta-bisulphate and sodium benzoate are favoured chemicals. These chemicals prevent the growth of micro¬organisms. Pickles, jams, murabbas are preserved by using chemicals like salt, vinegar, sugar, spices etc. Sodium benzoate or potassium meta-bisulphite are used as preservatives for squashes, ketchup etc.

Kenya, in Africa, was a British colony from 1920 to 1963. 

In 1947, Jomo Kenyatta was elected the President of the Kenya African Union. 

Kenyatta was arrested and imprisoned on charges of anti-colonial movement during the Mau Mau uprising. Emergency was declared on 2 October, 1952. When emergency was lifted in January 1960, there was public demand for his release. He was released in August 1961. 

The number of white settlers in Kenya was huge. They resented the black majority rule and 

refused to negotiate with Kenyatta and his Kenya African Unity Party (KAU). Kenya was a difficult area to negotiate with for freedom. 

The white settlers turned aggressive thinking that the struggle of African Party would weaken. The British government was in great pressure from both the sides as these white settlers were backed by few big business houses of Britain. 

KAU was not able to make much progress because only six Africans were allowed to join the Legislative Council of fifty-four members. 

The agitated and irritated Kenyan people started terrorist attacks on Europeanowned farms. These attacks were organised by the Mau Mau secret society. Their members were mainly from the Kikuyu tribes, who lost their best lands to the white settlers. The British authority deployed huge forces to suppress the terrorists and arrested and imprisoned the national leaders and Kenyatta. Over the next eight years, approximately ten thousand Africans were killed and number of people in jail. It was no better than a concentration camp. 

The terrorists were defeated by 1960 but the Britishers were able to analyse the expense of this entire anti-terrorist campaing by themselves. Kenya became independent in 1963 and Kenyatta was made the Prime Minister of Kenya. Once in power, he gradually changed from radical nationalist to a conservative bourgeois politician

(a) Since the promotions are to be given to the existing employees, minimum standard of qualifications has to be ignored, if highly qualified employees are not available. 

(b) Selection from the existing employees is a difficult process if the employees have limited knowledge and skills.