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Any food item can be kept for certain period of time under normal conditions of temperature and humidity. Food items are fresh, cheap and available in abundance during the seasons. If these are not properly preserved for off seasons consumption, they will get spoiled. Thus, preservation of food items prevents the wastage. 

The principles of food preservation are described below: 

Use of Low Temperature : It involves storing the food items at a temperature below normal room temperature. The action of micro¬organisms and chemical activity slows down at lower temperatures and as such, the putrefaction or process of decay is delayed and food items can be preserved for periods more than the normal. 

Home refrigeration : If can be done by using refrigerator, ice box etc. The perishable food items like fruits, vegetables, fish, meat, egg, milk , curd and leftover food can be preserved for some additional period. 

Freezing : The growth of micro-organisms’ enzymatic activity and chemical reactions are extremely slow at a temperature below ice point and the food items can be preserved for weeks together. 

Use of High Temperature: Pasteurisation and Canning are examples that utilise high temperature methods for preservation of food. Heating at high temperature destroys all microorganisms and enzymes. 

Pasteurization : This generally refers to preserve milk either by holding process or flash process. In holding process, the milk is heated to 65° C and kept at this temperature for 30 minutes and then cooled down. In flash process, the milk is heated to 75° C, only for 15 seconds. This process is also called high temperature for short time (HTST). The milk is cooled and packed in bottles and kept in deep freezer till distribution. 

Canning : Vegetables, fruits and meat are preserved by this method. The items are prepared, packed in tins, sealed and then heated to high temperature to destroy the micro-organisms. This process is termed as ‘Sterilisation’. The seal of the tin prevents any contamination of food and thus food is preserved for a long period of time. 

Drying : Drying of food items by evaporating the moisture from it prevents the growth of micro-organisms and hence, prevents food from getting spoiled. Drying in sun is very cheap and effective. The vegetables are cleaned, washed, cut and dipped in boiling water for 10 minutes and then sundried. 

Use of preservatives : Certain chemicals also prevent the growth of microorganisms. Pickles, jams, murabbas are preserved by using chemicals like salt, vinegar, sugar, spices etc. Sodium benzoate or potassium meta- bisulphite are used as preservatives for squashes, ketchup etc. 

Use of radiation : The ultra violet or gamma rays are allowed to pass through packaged food to sterilize it. This is rather a recent technique and not much in use.

Vinegar is dilute acetic acid which is important in food preservation industry. Its acidic nature helps in preservation of meats, fruits and vegetables by pickling. This acid is generally supplemented by relatively large amount of salt and sugar.

Food preservation is keeping the food in such a state where it does not get spoilt for a long period of time and also retains its color, flavor, texture and nutrients. 

The underlying principle of all preservation techniques is to restrict the spoilage of food so that it can be consumed safely in a palatable form at a later time. 

Preservation of food has the following benefits : 

1. They are easy to store. 

2. Controls the wastage of food. 

3. Add variety to meals. 

4. Easy to transport. 

5. Provide nutritionally adequate meals to the family. 

6. Learning to preserve food is a skill. It is a good way of making use of one’s leisure time. 

7. One can even earn money by selling preserved products from home. 

8. They come in handy and save a lot of time, money and energy.

‘Quality’ is optimum standard of food as compared to the legal standards as well as consumer acceptance. 

Four reasons to consider a food of low quality are : 

1. Infestation of foods like grains are considered substandard. 

2. Off flavour or odour due to spoilage of food by microorganisms is considered as low quality food. 

3. Uneven size and shape of foods like vegetables can be considered as low quality foods. 

4. Tampered packaging, gnawed and broken foods may also be considered as low quality. 

5. Presence of extraneous materials like hair/pins/stones/thread or others is considered as low food quality. 

6. Adulterated foods are considered low quality foods.

Two bactericidal methods that preserve food are 

• Deep freezing 

• Canning.

Disposal of House-waste to maintain sanitation are: 

Reduce, Reuse and Recycle is the key to all kinds of waste disposal and is easiest to follow in households. 

1. Reduce the use of plastic and paper products. Use cloth bags rather. 

2. Reduce buying toys and materials that are made up of plastics or are packaged in plastic wrappers or containers. 

3. Reuse those products that have to be discarded but can be reused in some way. 

4. Reusing clothes can be done in many ways like making an art piece or reusing as a duster. 

5. Recycling of waste materials can be done at home in many different ways or it can be given away to scrap collectors. 

6. Unwanted items can be donated to the needy. 

7. Vermi-composting can be done by using the wet waste produced at home instead of discarding it.

Five advantages of food preservation are : 

1. Non-seasonal foods can also be available due to preservation of foods (Ex. pineapple candies). 

2. Preservation of foods like fruits (Ex. mango .pineapple, amla) can add to nutritional value of foods. 

3. It prevents loss of food materials when available in bulk (Ex. banana chips) and makes food available in drought or other reasons of unavailability (Ex. biscuits). 

4. It makes cooking easier, faster and more convenient (Ex. Frozen peas/com) 

5. It adds variety to the dishes. Ex. sauces, pickles, jams.

Esteemed needs are : Status, power, confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect, etc. 

Status : When a person has status, they are widely recognized and are effectively given social power through the influence that is gained. Status may be gained through basic admiration from others. It is also gained by position, 

Esteem as a reward: 

Esteem : Esteem is often used as a reward. An esteem reward may be a promotion or a ‘lifelong achievement’ award. Although money is useful, but beyond a reasonable salary, many people are not strongly influenced by cash incentives. Esteem often acts as an intrinsic reward, and thus can be far more powerful than extrinsic rewards such as bonus payments or loyalty card points.

import java.io. * 

clas Pseudoarithmetic 

{ 

Public int n; 

Public int a [ ]; 

Public int ans; 

Public int flag; 

Public int sum;

 Public int r; 

Pseudoarithmetic() 

{ 

n = 0; flag = 0; sum = 0; 

} 

void accept(int nn) 

{ 

n = nn; 

BufferedReader B = new BufferedReaderf new InputStreamReader (System, in)); 

a [n]; 

(int i = 0; i < n; i++) 

{ 

a [i] = Integer.parselnt (B.readLine( )); 

sum = sum + a[i]; 

} 

} 

boolean check( ) 

{ 

if(n%2 = = 0) 

{ int i = 0;p = n-1; 

while (i < p) 

{

r = a[i] + a[p] 

if (r == (a [i + 1] + a [p - 1] && (r*3) = = sum) 

{ 

flag = 0; 

} 

p = p-1;i = i + 1; 

else 

else if (n%2 ! = 0) 

{ 

int i = 0;p = n-1; 

while (i <=p) 

{

r=a[i] + a[p] if (r== (a [i +1] + a[p -1]) && (r*3) = = sum) 

{ flag = 0; 

} 

else 

{

flag= 1; 

} 

p = p-1;i = i+1; 

} 

} 

if(flag = = 0) 

return true; 

else 

return false; 

}

The two disadvantages of recursion are: 

(i) It takes more time to compile. 

(ii) Much memory blocks are wasted.

(i) On-the-job training method enables workers to be trained under the same working conditions with the same process and equipment’s used to perform the job. The trainee learns under the guidance and supervision of the superior or an instructor. Several methods are used to provide on-the-job training, 

e.g, coaching, job-rotation, committee assignments etc. 

(ii) Advantages of on-the-job training are: 

• The trainee learns the rules, regulations and procedures by observing their day to day applications. 

• This method is very economical because no additional space, equipment, personnel or other facilities are required. 

(iii) Disadvantages of on-the-job training are: 

• The trainee may cause damage to costly equipment’s and materials. 

• Accidents in the factory may increase. 

(iv) Distinction between off-the-job training and on-the-job training

(a) Where production quantity is more important than the quality of the product. 

(b) When the work is of repetitive nature.

Motivation is an inspirational process which impels the members of the team to pull their weight effectively, to give their loyalty to the group, to carry out properly the tasks that they have accepted and generally to play an effective part in the job that the group has undertaken. 

Various characteristics of Motivation are: Psychological: Motivation is a psychological phenomena which is generated within an individual. It is a personal and internal feeling which arises from the needs and wants of a person. 

Complex process : Motivation is a complex process as there is no universal theory to motivation. Different individuals seek different things or work for different reasons. Moreover, human needs change from time to time. 

Continuous process : Motivation is an on going process. Human needs are unlimited whereas the means to satisfy them are limited. Fulfillment of one set of needs gives rise to another set of needs. 

Financial and non-financial benefits: Financial motivation may be in the form of bonus, rewards, allowances etc. and non-financial benefits relates to affection, participation in decision-making, recognition etc.

Following are the factors that affect the capital structure of a company : 

Cost of Equity : Another factor which helps in deciding capital structure is cost of equity. Owners or equity shareholders expect a return on their investment i.e., earning per share. As far as debt is increasing earning per share (EPS), then we can include it in capital structure but w hen EPS starts decreasing with inclusion of debt then we must depend upon equity share capital only.

Floatation Costs: Floatation cost is the cost involved in the issue of shares or debentures. These costs include the cost of advertisement, underwriting statutoryfees etc. It is a major consideration for small companies but even large companies cannot ignore this factor because along with cost there are many legal formalities to be completed before entering into capital market. Issue of shares, debentures requires more formalities as well as more floatation cost. Whereas there is less cost involved in raising capital by loans or advances.

Risk Consideration : Financial risk refers to a position when a company is unable to meet its fixed financial charges such as interest, preference dividend, payment to creditors etc. Apart from financial risk business has some operating risk also. It depends upon operating cost, higher operating cost means higher business risk. The total risk depends upon both financial as well as business risk. If firm’s business risk is low then it can raise more capital by issue of debt securities where as at the time of high business risk it should depend upon equity.

Flexibility: Excess of debt may restrict the firm’s capacity to borrow further. To maintain flexibility it must maintain some borrowing power to take care of unforeseen circumstances.

(a) Purpose for Adoption of Human Rights: The Human Rights Declaration adopted by the UN aimed at creating a society which gets ample freedom and opportunities for every kind of development. The Human Rights would bring social, political, cultural and economic well being of the masses. These rights would help in creating a just economic, political and social order. The Human Rights were cornerstone of human freedom and protection, against injustice, terror, tyranny and dictatorship. 

(b) The Importance of Articles 1 and 2: These articles lay great stress on equality of human beings. These articles ensure equal freedom and rights to people without any distinction whatsoever. Thus the articles help in creating a progressive society. It also lays down the limit on the power of law making bodies and executive. No authority can abridge or deny the fundamental rights to the people in any country of the world. Thus Articles 1 and 2 can be said to be the foundation of Human rights.

(a) Three causes of the First World War (1914): 

Militant Nationalism and Mutual Rivalries: Each nation thought about` her own national interest. Nationalism had become competitive and aggressive. The spirit of Nationalism was a strong driving force in European politics of the 19th century. Thus the whole atmosphere was charged with narrow militant nationalism and inter-state rivalries. 

Europe Divided into Power Blocs: In Europe, there existed single nation states like France, Holland, Germany. There also existed some imperial states like Austria Hungarians empire, which included nationalities like Serbs, Hungarians, Bosanions and the Croats. There was the Russia empire which included Polish Ukranian, Turkish and Mages people. Great Britain was also a colonial empire. The major European nation were divided into two Bloc’s. Germany, Austria, Hungary and Italy had made the Triple Alliance in 1882 A.D. and the Dual Alliance united France and Russia. At the dawn of the 20th Century Europe was divided into two hostile camps. Tension prevailed in their relations with each other, bloc-wise. The immediate cause: The Sarajevo Incident: In June 1914, The Archduke Francis Ferdinand, The Heir-Apparent to the throne of Austria went to Sarajevo, the Capital of Bosnia, on an official visit. On June 28, 1914, he and his wife were shot dead. The assassin, Gavrilo Princep, was a nineteen years old Bosnian student. This dual murder had been planned in Serbia by a secret society of patriotic terrorists called the “Black hand”. The Austrians blamed the Serbians for this crime, as the assassin and fellow conspirators had received their guns and bombs in Serbian Capital with the help of Serbian officials. 

(b) Three clauses of the Treaty of Versailles are as follows: 

1. The Treaty declared Germany guilty of aggression. She had to pay a very heavy sum estimated of 33 billion dollars as war indemnity to the allies. Germany was to evacuate the places she had captured during the war. 

2. The area of the Rhine Valley was to be demilitarised. Germany could not maintain or construct any fortification either on the left bank of the Rhine or on the right bank. Moreover, all existing fortifications were required to be destroyed. To guarantee the execution of the Treaty, the German territory west of Rhine was to be occupied by the Allied troops for 15 years. 

3. The German army was dishanded. She was allowed to keep only one lakh soldiers. The air force and sub-marines were also banned. Her navy was limited to 15,000 men and 36 ships. 

(c) The Peace Settlement at Paris was made in a spirit of revenge. The Germans felt that too much injustice had been done to them. The victorious powers had deprived Germany of huge tracts of its territory. She was burdened with an immense War Indemnity. It was impossible for a pround German race to forget the consequences of the War, which they had lost so humiliatingly. This fuelled the rise of Nazism in Germany and entered upon a career of aggression.

(a) Subash Chandra Bose. 

This organisation was formed for the liberation of India with the support of peasants, workers, youths and all radical organisations. After attaining independence Forward Bloc would work for the establishment of a socialist society through: 

1. the state-planning for the reorganization of agriculture and industry on socialist lines. 

2. abolition of landlordism. 

3. establishment of a new monetary and credit system. 

(b) The Cripps Mission wanted to solve the political deadlock which had resulted due to British needing Indian support in Second World War and Indians denying it. Under following circumstances, Gandhiji launched the Quit India Movement to force the British out of the country. 

1. The Cripps mission failed to solve the constitutional problems of India. 

2. The British presence in India acted as a bait for the Japanese who were at war with Allied powers in Second World War. An immediate Japanese attack on British India could be prevented by an early and peaceful withdrawal of the British from India. 

3. Lastly the British rulers in India were fanning communal hatred between the Hindus and Muslims which resulted in riots and anarchy. 

(c) (i) The existing Constituent Assembly would continue to work, but the constitution framed by it would not apply to Pakistan. 

(ii) The British Parliament would pass an Act for the transfer of power before 15 Aug. 1947. 

(iii) The treaties with the Princely states would come to an end. 

(iv) The country would be divided into two Dominions i.e., India and Pakistan.

Subhash Chandra Bose was the founder of the Forward Bloc party in 1939.

(a) Trade union is the association of workers for maintaining and improving the conditions of their working lives and securing them a better status in the industry and the society. Workers form unions in order to resist employer’s exploitation and protect and safeguard their interests. 

(b) 

1. Private Warehouses: These warehouses are owned by manufacturers and traders to store the goods produced or purchased by them until they are sold out. The expenses of constructing, maintenance and insurance of private warehouses are paid for the their owners. Private warehouses are generally located in rural and suburban areas where space is available at low cost. 

2. Public Warehouses: Public warehouses may be owned by Government, public trusts and other public authorities. Any businessman can store his goods in these warehouses for some charge. Public warehouses are located in places which are well connected by roads, railways and water-ways/airways. 

(c) A budget is a plan expressed in quantitative or monetary terms for a specific period of time, usually one year. It is a financial statement prepared prior to a defined period of time, of the policy to be purchased during that period for the purpose of attaining a given objective. 

(d) 

1. Railway transport is more suitable for carrying bulky and heavy goods whereas road transport is not suitable for this. 

2. Rail transport remains relatively unaffected by rain, floods, fog etc. whereas road transport become affected. 

(e) 

1. Proximics: Use of interpersonal space in communication is known as proximics. When two persons purposefully maintain a distance between them while speaking to each other, it has a meaning. Proximics is an important part of non-verbal communication and it modifies the spoken words. 

2. Aural Communication: Aural or auditory methods of communication are those which are heard. Bells, buzzers, horns, whistles, etc., are sources of aural communication. Aural communication methods are used in commercial organisations to locate staff.

(a) Recurring Deposit Account: In this type of account, a customer is allowed to deposit a certain amount of money (say Rs. 10, 50, 500, etc.,) every month for a specified period of time. At the end of the period, he is given the total deposit amount along with interest at the prescribed rate. Such an account is also called cumulative time deposit. Thus, a person can gradually save money for purchase of costly article, for education or marriage of children, etc. Withdrawal and cheque facilities are not available in this account. A pass book showing the installments deposited by the customer is issued. 

(b) Pension: Under the Employees’ Provident Funds and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, the Government of India has framed family pension scheme to provide family pension benefits to the employees. The scheme was launched with the objective of providing long term recurring financial assistance to the employee after retirement and to his family in case of premature death while in service. 

(c) 

1. To satisfy customers and to yield profits. 

2. Determine the cost of the product, sales volume, degree of competition, Government regulations, etc. 

(d) 

1. Sustainable Use of Water: 

• Encourage and improve traditional methods of rainwater harvesting and storage. 

• Use drip irrigation and other water conservation measures in agriculture. 

• Protect water in water bodies from effluents and toxic materials. 

• Check over exploitation of surface and ground water. 

2. Sustainable Use of Energy: 

• Use alternative sources of fuel such as hydrogen, methanol, biogas, solar energy, etc. 

• Develop fuel efficient and smokeless chullahs. 

• Solar cooking does not burn any fuel and is the most eco-friendly option. 

• Solar cookers help preserve forests, save foreign exchange spent on kerosene and cooking gas and to create employment opportunities. 

(e) 

1. Manufactures and traders charge higher prices from consumers to recover the money spent on advertising. 

2. Advertising is often deceptive and misrepresents facts to the consumer.

Five Objectives of Marketing: 

1. Customer satisfaction: The primary objective of marketing is to satisfy the needs of consumers by producing the right products and services at the right time, right place and right price. All marketing activities are guided by information concerning what customers expect from business. No business enterprise can survive and grow in the long run unless it provides full satisfaction to consumers. 

2. Profitability: A business enterprise is an economic institution. It must earn profits otherwise it cannot survive and prosper. But profits should be achieved through customer satisfaction. According to Philip Kotler, “Now the key is not to aim for profits as such but to achieve them as a byproduct of doing the jobs well.” 

3. Coordination and integration: Marketing must aim at bringing about an effective coordination and integration between product, price, promotion and distribution It must also ensure coordination between marketing and business activities such as manufacturing, finance, personnel, etc. 

4. Service to society: Marketing should focus on improving the quality of living of people by providing a wide variety of quality products and services at reasonable prices. According to Malcom McNair, “Marketing is the creation and delivery of a standard of living to society”. Marketing should also be oriented towards conservation of national resources and protection of environment. 

5. Creation of Demand: A business firm can sell goods and services only when there are customers willing to buy them, therefore, the first purpose of marketing is to create demand for goods and services. For this purpose, marketing finds out the needs and preferences of customers.

On-the-Job Training (OJT): On-the-job training is convenient and inexpensive. It provides first-hand job knowledge and experience under actual . working conditions. However, the noise of the workplace may distract the attention of trainees and they may find it difficult to concentrate on learning. Two methods for on-the-job training are given below: 

1. Job Instruction Training (JIT): This is the most popular form of on-the-job training. It is also known as step-by-step training. 

It consists of the following steps: 

• Preparing the trainees by telling them about the job and overcoming their initial nervousness; 

• Presenting the instructions, giving the necessary information, interacting, illustrating and asking questions; 

• Letting the trainees try out the job or show their understanding; 

• Observing, try out and providing necessary assistance and follow-up. 

2. Apprenticeship Training: Under this method, the trainees learn by r working with those who are already skilled in their jobs. People who want to enter skilled trades (such as welder, plumber, electrician, machinist) are required to undergo apprenticeship training. In an apprenticeship programme, classroom training is given first and then the trainees try out the job under the guidance of a master worker. Classroom training focuses on theory and auxiliary skills. In job try-out the trainees gradually learn the skilled craft. An apprenticeship programme may run from 2 to 5 years.

Communication is essential for effective management. But it is not always as effective as it should be. Several obstructions, bottlenecks, hurdles or blockades hinder the process of communication. These are called barriers to communication. 

Four barriers to communication are given below: 

1. Physical Barriers: Physical distance between the sender and the receiver of the message is an important barrier to communication. Noise and environmental factors also obstruct communication. Mechanical barriers or defects in the equipments used for communication also cause distortion. 

2. Status Barriers: Status means the position of a person in the hierarchy of an organisation. It is usually a major barrier in the free flow of information. A superior (boss) may pass only selected information to his subordinates in order to maintain status differences. Subordinates often convey only that information which the superior would appreciate. Thus, status may cause distortion in both downward communication and upward communication. 

3. Lack of Mutual Trust: Communication becomes ineffective when there is lack of faith between the sender and the receiver. In such a situation transmission of information and ideas is not free. Emotional attitudes on the part of communicator and communicate also obstruct free flow of communication. 

4. Premature Evaluation: Some persons tend to form a judgement or arrive at a conclusion before receiving the complete message. This tendency is known as premature evaluation. It distorts understanding and acts as a barrier to effective communication.

Distinguish between Capital Expenditure and Revenue Expenditure: 

1. Earning Capacity: Capital expenditure increases the earning capacity of the business whereas revenue expenditure does not increase the earning capacity as it is incurred for maintaining the existing earning capacity. 

2. Period of Benefit: The benefit of capital expenditure extends to more than one year. But the benefit of revenue expenditure extends only to the current year. 

3. Accounting Treatment: Capital expenditure is shown in the Balance Sheet as an asset. Whereas revenue expenditure is shown as an expense in the Trading Account or Profit and Loss Account. 

4. Nature: Capital expenditure is of a non-recurring nature because such expenditure is not incurred every day. Whereas revenue expenditure is recurring in nature as it is incurred on day to day operations. 

5. Effect on Assets: Capital expenditure leads to increase in the value of fixed assets. But revenue expenditure does not result in increase in the value of these assets.

Two functions of the Central Bank of a country are: 

1. Issue of currency notes: One of the main function of a central bank is the issue of the legal tender currency notes. The central bank hold monopoly in issue of currency notes. This is necessary to keep uniformity in the note circulation of a country and to avoid the anomaly of over-issue by many banks which are established with the primary motive of earning profit; to confer on currency notes a distinctive prestige so as to command public confidence; and so forth.

2. Credit control: It is also a very important function of a central bank. A country can have foreign exchange stability and price stability only when the central bank of the country exercises its strict control on the credit granting capacity of the banking structure. Hence, credit control by the central bank is necessary. It controls qualitatively and quantitatively the credit granting capacity of the commercial banks.

Two Principals of Insurance: 

1. Utmost good faith: As contract of insurance is based on mutual trust and confidence. It means that each party to the insurance contract must disclose all the information which is likely to influence the other party’s decision to enter into contract. The proposer knows better the facts relating to the risk. Therefore, he must disclose all material facts known to him. For example, in a contract of life insurance, the proposer must disclose his correct age, any chronic illness, etc. If he misrepresents or conceals certain facts, the insurance company can cancel the contract of insurance. 

2. Insurable Interest: A person must have interest in the non-occurrence of the event being insured. He should stand in a position that he would benefit from the existence of the subject matter and would suffer a loss from its destruction or damage. For example, a person has interest in his life and property. But a person has no interest in the life or property of a stranger. This principle is based on the logic that no one should be allowed to make profit out of insurance.

1. Promotions: Vacancies at higher levels may be filled up by promoting persons working at lower levels. For example, when the present sales manager of a company retires, one of the branch managers may be promoted as the new sales manager. Promotion involves shifting an employee to a higher post carrying a higher status and more salary. 

2. Transfers: Transfer means shifting an employee from one factory, branch or office to fill vacancy in another factory, branch or office of the company. For example, shortage of sales persons in one branch may be met by transferring sales persons -from another branch. Transfer involves shifting an employee to a similar job without change in status and salary.

(a) Five expectations of Creditors from a Business Enterprise: 

1. A fair and regular return (in the form of dividend or interest) on their capital. 

2. Capital appreciation in the value of their investment. 

3. Accurate, up-to-date and regular information about the working and financial health of the company.

4. Return of loans in time in case of creditors. 

5. A public image of the company for which they can feel proud. 

(b) Five codes of conduct adopted in the field of Advertising: 

1. Advertising should be so designed as to conform to the laws of the country and should not offend against morality, decency and religious susceptibilities of the people. 

2. No advertisement shall be permitted which exploits the national emblems, or any part of the constitution, or the person or personality of a national leader or state dignitary. 

3. No advertisement shall be permitted the object whereof are wholly or mainly of a religious or political nature; advertisements must not be directed towards any religious or political end or have any relation to any industrial dispute. 

4. In all other respects, the Director General, Doordarshan will be guided for purposes of commercial telecasting in Doordarshan by the Code of Ethics for Advertising in India as modified from time to time. 

5. Notwithstanding anything contained herein this Code is subject to such modifications as may be made/issued by the Government of India from time to time.

1. To maintain environmental stability though massive afforestation and social forestry programmes. 

2. To check on soil erosion in the catchment areas of the rivers, lakes and reservoirs and also check on extension of sand dunes in the desert areas. 

3. Steps to meet requirement of fuel wood, fodder, minor forest produce and soil timber of rural and tribal population. 

4. Steps to create massive people movement with involvement of women to achieve the objectives and minimize pressure on the existing forest.

(i) Another name for Western Ghats is Sahyadris. 

(ii) 1. It stands like a continuous wall and can be crossed through passes only. 

2. The western slope of this range is step like.

(i) El Nino is a narrow warm current which sometimes appears off the coast of Peru in South America during December. It is a temporary replacement of the cold Peru current which normally flows along this coast. 

(ii) This warm current can increase the surface water temperature of the sea by 10°C. Warming of tropical pacific waters affects the global pattern of pressure and wind system including the monsoon winds in the Indian Ocean.

(i) Delhi experiences rain in December- January due to western disturbances which originate in areas near the Mediterranean Sea. The western disturbances move under the influence of westerly jet stream and bring rain in northern and northwestern parts of India during this time. 

(ii) Kolkata has little rain in April due to Norwesters thunderstorms. The sudden contact between dry and moist air causes this storm condition also known as Kalbaisakhi in the month of April-May.

(i) There are large variations in the amount of rainfall received in different parts of India. The highest amounts is received by the Northeastern states and Western Ghats and the rainfall is below 20 cm in Western Rajasthan. These large variations in actual amount of rainfall from year to year is known as variability of rainfall.

(ii) Agriculture is not possible without water. Large parts of India suffer from high rainfall variability. Without sufficient rainfall, agriculture in India is reduced to a gamble in the hands of monsoon. Kharif crops like rice and jute cannot be grown without sufficient rainfall. Productivity of agriculture is high with less variability of rainfall and vice versa.

Rights of consumers are :

Right to Safety : The Consumer Protection Act 1986 defines this right as a protection against goods and services that are hazardous to life and property. This particularly applies to medicines, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs and automobiles. The right requires all such products of critical nature to life and property to be carefully tested and validated before being marketed to the consumer.

Right to Information : This right mentions the need for consumers to be informed about the quality and quantity of goods being sold. They must be informed about the price of the product and have access to other information specific to the product that they wish to consume.

Right to Choose: The consumer must have the right to choose between different products at competitive prices. This av oids monopoly in the market.

Right to Seek Redressal : When a consumer feels exploited, he/she has the right to approach a consumer court to file a complaint. A consumer court is a forum that hears the complaint and provides justice to the party that has been hurt. Thus, if the consumer feels he/she has been exploited, they can approach the court using this right.

(a) Financing is an essential though auxiliary function of marketing. Finance is required to meet fixed and working capital requirement of the business. Business firms often sell goods on credit to merchants and customers to increase the volume of sales. So, funds are required to keep stock, to meet transport, storage and to grant credit. 

(b) The advantages of Rail Transport are : 

1. Railways are more reliable because they follow fixed routes, have regular time schedules and are available throughout the year. 

2. It is very cheaper means for carrying bulky goods over long distance. 

3. It can carry a much larger quantity of goods than motor vehicles. 

4. The freight charges are fixed and do not change frequently. 

(c) According to this right, the consumer must be made aware of his rights and the remedies available under the different laws. The consumer has the right to acquire knowledge and to be well informed throughout life. He should be informed of the negative impacts of consuming adulterated products. When they know about the rights and duties only then they will prevented from exploitation. 

(d) The various sustainable uses of water are : 

1. Use drip irrigation and other water conservation measures in agriculture. 

2. Protect water in water bodies from effluents and toxic materials. 

3. Build small reservoirs in place of a few big projects. 

4. Check over exploitation of surface and ground water. 

(e) Conservation is the planned management of our surrounding to prevent its exploitation or destruction. Whereas restoration means recreation and enhancement of natural resources. People will conserve and restore natural resources only when they are sensitive to the environment and realise the importance of ecological balance. Well informed citizens and environmentalists have the duty to take the initiative in making the common man aware of the need for ecological restoration and conservation.

(a) Cash Budget: Cash Budget is a summary statement of the firm’s expected inflows and outflows of cash over a future time period. It involves a projection of future cash receipts and cash payments over different time intervals. 

A cash budget is helpful in: 

1. Determining the future cash requirements of the firm. 

2. Planning for financing of those requirements. 

3. Exercising control over cost and liquidity of the firm. 

(b) Formal Communication: Formal communication refers to the flow of information along the lines of authority deliberately and consciously established by the management in the organisation structure. It takes place from one position to another in the formal organisation. For example, the marketing manager of a company may send a revised price list to branch managers. Formal communication occurs both in writing mid orally. Orders, policy manuals, news bulletins, official meetings, interviews, etc., are main forms of formal communication. It is used for the transmission of official messages. Formal communication is authorised and well planned. 

(c) Whenever an account holder wants to deposit cash or cheque in his bank account, he has to fill in a form called pay-in-slip. Pay-in-slip has the name of the bank’s customer, account number, date, amount in words and figures, cheque number, bank’s name and branch, cashier’s signature etc. 

(d) ATM stands for Automated Teller Machine. An ATM renders teller’s job 24 hours a day. It is a self-service terminal which renders the facility of withdrawal and deposit of money to the bank customers. Each customer is given a separate plastic card to avail the services at the ATM. The customer has to insert the plastic card into the terminal and enter his identification code. The machine Would then respond to the customer’s instruction of giving cash, taking deposit and handling other banking transactions. 

(e) Brand Promotion: Brand promotion is a strategy that is commonly used in marketing in order to increase customer loyalty, awareness of products, and sales. Instead of focusing on a specific product or products, a company instead tries to focus on the promotion of its brand. This strategy has been proven to be very effective in marketing, and many companies currently employ it. Companies have used brand promotion for many years, and it is still successful in today’s market. With this strategy, one of the primary objectives of the company is to increase brand awareness. Brand promotion also leads to increases in sales in many cases

(a) Financing is one of the important factor that can affect the marketing activity, For example, if finance department in any organisation limits the marketing budget, than it makes difficult to reach the target demographic. Hence, more financing will facilitate the marketing activities to reach more and more demographic. 

(b) Four sources of external recruitment: 

1. Advertisements 

2. Placement Agencies 

3. Campus Interviews 

4. Employment Exchanges. 

(c) Modes of Purchasing Goods: 

1. Purchase Cards: Purchase cards work well for medium-sized purchases that you need to track but that don’t necessitate a purchase order requisition. 

2. Purchase Orders: These are requisition forms that acts as a formal agreement between buyer and supplier regarding the prices and terms agreed upon for the purchase. 

(d) Two disadvantages of Road Transport over Water Transport: 

1. In road transport maintenance charges are required therefore freight charges are not stable and uniform whereas rivers and oceans are natural tracks and no capital investment is required for their maintenance so water transport is stable and cheapest mode of transport. 

2. Road transport can carry only a small load and is not suitable for heavy and bulky goods in large quantity whereas water transport is extremely suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods. 

(e) Effective communication is essential at all stages in the functioning of an organisation. When the organisational structure of a firm is complex, consisting of several levels of authority, there are greater chances of distortion or breakdown in communication which tends to be slow and rigid and hence effective communication cannot take place.

(a) Two features of Consumer Protection Act 1986: 

1. It provides effective safeguards to the consumers against various types of exploitation and unfair trade practices. 

2. It is not obligatory to engage any advocate. No court free or any other charges is to be paid by the complainant. The complainant can write his grievance on a simple paper along with the name and address of the opposite party against whom the complaint is made. 

3. The Act covers both goods and services rendered for consideration by any person or organisation. 

4. It provides a speedy and simple redressal to consumer grievances. (any two) 

(b) Following are the main functions of trade union: 

1. Trade unions ensure adequate wages, better working conditions, better treatment and a reasonable share and control in the profits and management of industry. 

2. Trade unions help the workers in case of sickness and accident and give them financial support during the period of unemployment strikes and lockouts. 

(c) Marketing Research may be defined as systematic gathering, recording and analysing all facts about marketing problems to facilitate decision making. It involves a careful and objective study of all aspects of marketing. Marketing research is wider term than market research which is a study of only those who buy and distribute the products. Marketing research includes product study, consumer study, price study and distribution channels study. 

(d) Deferred Revenue Expenditure are those expenditures which have been incurred in an accounting period and they do not create any asset but their I benefit is spread in more than one accounting period. 

Example: Advertisement cost. The benefit of such expenditure is enjoyed over a number of years.

(e) Two Advantages of Radio Advertising: 

1. It is used as a mass-scale advertising medium. 

2. Because of its mass appeal, it has low cost per exposure.

(a) Exchange functions of marketing include buying and selling of goods and services. These functions have a common feature in one respect, that they are directly concerned with the change in ownership of goods. Once the right type of product or service is developed, it must be transferred to customers. Products are bought from different sources to meet diverse needs of consumers. The products are sold in small lots over a period of time. Thus, buying and selling are the activities of exchange.

(b) The two methods of marketing research are as follows: 

1. Observation Method: Observation refers to the process of recognising and noting facts or events. Under this method, the behaviour of consumers is watched through personal observation or mechanical devices. It avoids the pitfalls of questioning such as interference in the consumer’s activity, bias of the interviewer and distortion due to the consciousness of being questioned. 

2. Experimentation method: Under this method, a control market is established in which all forces except those being tested are kept under check. It seeks to test a theory or to find consumer’s reactions. The method involves a large expenditure of time and money. It requires skilled investigators. Moreover, it is difficult to select test markets and to control the variables.

(a) Expectations of Employees: 

1. Security of job and continuity of service under congenial conditions. 

2. A fair remuneration in the form of wages and salaries. 

3. Safe and comfortable working environment. 

4. Various welfare facilities such as housing, medical care, social security (in the form of pension, gratuity, provident funds, etc.), health, recreation, etc. 

5. Opportunities for education, self-development, promotion and career growth. 

6. Quick and fair redressal of grievances. 

7. Protection of trade union rights. (any five) 

(b) Interpersonal skills required for effective communication: 

1. Speaking Skills: Ability to speak well is a valuable skill. Speaking is an art and it can be mastered through training and practice. 

2. Listening Skills: Listening with complete attention and empathy is essential for success in communication. Communication cannot be realized unless a listener completes the loop’. 

3. Questioning: Questioning is an art that can serve many purposes. It is a great way to initiate a conversation. It demonstrate interest and can instantaneously draw someone into your desire to listen. 

4. Manners: Good manners tend to make many other interpersonal skills come naturally. With business becoming increasingly more global, even for small businesses, manners are more important than ever. A basic understanding of etiquette translates to other cultures and their expectations. 

5. Problem Solving: The key aspects of successful problem solving are being able to identify exactly what the problem is, dissecting the problem so that it is fully understood, examining all options pertaining to solutions, setting up a system of strategies and objectives to solve the problem, and finally putting this plan into effect and monitoring its progress.

The expectations of the General Public or society from a business enterprise are as follows: 

1. To protect the environment from all types of pollution. 

2. To Produce socially desirable products in accordance with national interest and priorities. 

3. To help weaker sections of the society by giving them preference in employment and other fields. 

4. To preserve social and cultural values. 

5. To respect human rights including rights of women and children.

The two expectations of the general public from a business organisations are as follows: 

1. To protect the-environment from all types of pollution. 

2. To produce socially desirable product in accordance with national interest and priorities.

(a) Risk whose probability cannot be calculated and which cannot be insured against is known as non-insurable risk. 

Example: Loss due to fall in demand, changing technology, changing fashion etc. 

(b) General utility functions are: 

1. Safe custody of valuables: Banks offer safe deposit vaults (called lockers) where customers can keep their jewellery, shares, debentures, insurance policies and other valuables. In this way banks assume safe custody of valuables and important documents of customers. Banks charge rent for this service. 

2. Issue letters of credit, travellers cheques, etc: Commercial banks issue letters of credit to importers. They also issue cheques to travellers to make money available to them at the place of requirement. Travellers cheques relieve the tourists from the problem of carrying cash during the tour. Banks also provide credit card and ATM facilities to the customers. 

3. Underwriting of capital issues: Banks underwrite shares and debentures issued by public limited companies. In this way banks help them in raising capital from the market. Many commercial banks also offer merchant banking facilities to the corporate sector. (any two) 

(c) Two characteristics of service are: 

1. Services are intangible as they cannot be seen or touched. They have no physical shape. 

2. Services cannot be stored for future use.

‘Liquid Asset’ means those assets which will yield cash very shortly. All current asset except stock and prepaid expenses are included in liquid asset. Liquid asset thus include cash, debtors, bills receivable and short term securities.