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(i) DNA fingerprinting. 

(ii) Gave the term mutation. 

(iiI) Developed “Jaipur foot.

Monoco G’ledonous/Isobilateral Leaf 

1. Both the surfaces are alike. 

2. Stomata are equally distributed on both sides. Mesophyll undifferentiated. 

3. Vascular bundles are partially or completely surrounded by a sclerenchymatous sheath. 

4. Vascular bundles have phloem on the upper side and xylem on the lower side.

Dicotyledonous/Dorsiven frai leaf

1. Distinct upper and lower surface. 

2. Stomata are mostly present on the lower side. Mesophyll differentiated. 

3. Vascular bundles has sclerenchymatous patches on the upper side. 

4. Vascular bundles have downward phloem and upward xylem.

Darwin’s finches : The islands situated near the mainlands usually possess flora and fauna related to those of mainland. However, they have a unique diversity of species despite being related. One such example is Galapagos islands (Spanish Galapago – Giant Tortoise). Darwin visited the island in 1835 and described them as living laboratory of evolution. The islands have 26 species of birds and 11 species of tortoises. Out of 26 species of birds, 23 are endemic or found only in the islands. Amongst them were species of sparrow-like small black birds called finches. They are called Galapagos finches or Darwin’s finches (Lack, 1947).

They resemble mainland finches in plumage, body plan and short tails but differ amongst themselves as well as from mainland finches in shape and size of beaks, food habits, colour of feathers and body size. Thirteen species of finches occur in Galapagos island and one species in nearby Cocos island. Six species are of ground finches (Geospiza species), six species of tree finches (Camarhyncus species) and two types of warbler finches (Certhidia and Pinarolaxis species). The ancestors of Galapagos finches must have come from mainland.

They were seed eating. However, environment and availability of food on the various islands were different from those of the mainland. As a result variations appeared in them to suit their habitats. They ultimately produced the different species of finches, some of which evolved insect eating patterns. Divergence of organisms of a common stock due to adaptive changes to suit new environmental conditions is called adaptive radiation.

(i) Nawaschin discovered double fertilisation in plants. 

(ii) John Otto discovered Haemophilia. 

(iii) Went coined the term auxin for growth-promoting substance. 

(iv) T.R. Malthus an economist published essay on ‘Human Population Growth’ in 1799. Both Darwin and Wallace were inspired by his writings and conceived the idea of natural selection.

(1) Ernst Haeckel proposed biogenetic law which states that ‘Ontogeny repeats phylogeny’. 

(ii) Karl Landsteiner discovered ABO blood groups in human beings. 

(iii) Robert Koch (1843-1910) German physician contributed much to the field of microbiology and infectious diseases. He was the first to discover tuberculosis bacterium. He proposed Koch’s postulates which state certain requirements should be fulfilled if the disease causing character of any organism is to be proved. 

Hensen discovered the disease leprosy, proposed the sliding theory of muscle contraction.

(i) OP – Osmotic pressure/potentiaL 

(ii) RuBP — Ribulose biphosphate 

(iii) IBA – Indole – 3 – butyric acid 

(iv) PEP — Phosphoenol pyruvic acid

(i) Schwann Cells form neurilemma outside myelin sheath of medullated nerve fibre. They help in saltatory conduction of impulses. 

(ii) Organs of corti help in hearing by transmitting the sound impulses to the brain through the auditory nerve. In brain, the sensation of hearing is felt. 

(iii) Phellogen is the cork cambium. Its cells have bipolar activity. It cuts of compactly arranged cork cells (phellem) towards outside and loose, radially arranged secondary cortex cells (phelloderm) towards inner side. Later, the cork cells become dead, lose their protoplasm. The three together are called Periderm. 

(iv) Sertoli cells are present, along the wall of seminiferous tubule and play a role in nourishing the developing sperms. , 

(v) Neutrophils are the most numerous of all leucocytes, having many lobed nucleus, fine granules and phagocytic in nature. 

(vi) Gustatory cells are the taste cells, large in number, present inside each taste bud. They contain taste hairs, sensitive to particular chemicals only when they are dissolved in solutions that enter taste pores.

(i) Biomedical Engineering – It is the branch of science which deals with the instruments used in diagnosis and the treatment of human diseases. 

The instruments are classified into following three categories :

1. Diagnostic instrument 

2. Imaging instrument 

3. Therapeutic instrument.

(ii) Stem cell – These cells can divide and differentiate into diverse specialised cell type and self.

(iii) Cryopreservation – It is the storage of living organisms in ultra-low temperature such that it can be revived and restored into the same living state as before it was stored.

(i) hans Berger : First to record EEG 

(ii) Dixon and Jolly: Theory of ascent of sap 

(iii) J. B Lamarck: Theory of inhentance of acquired characters. 

(iv) William Harvey : Discovered closed circulatory system

(i) Tapetum cells: Rich in food materials, surrounds the micro spore mother cell and supplies food to the developing spores. 

(ii) Serotonin : Acts as a neurotransmitter. 

(iii) Lenticels : Allows exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the interior of the cells. 

(iv) Cerebrospinal fluid : Forms the protective cushion over the brain and spinal cord against shock and mechanical injury. 

(v) Islets of Langerhans: Secrete two hormones –

(a) insulin and 

(b) glucagon

(vi) Bundle sheath : Surrounds the vascular bundles in mono cot leaf, provides mechanical support.

(i) Nerve impulse travels in one direction Since the neurotransmitter is present only in the axon terminal so nerve impulse always travels from the axon terminal of one neurone to the dendrite or cell body of the next neurone.

(ii) Jamming of wooden doors and windows takes place during rainy season The cellulose of the wood absorbs water and swells up. This causes increase in size of doors and windows resulting in jam.

(iii) A cut plant wilts fast even if the cut end is dipped in water As the rate of transpiration is higher than that of the absorption by the cut end, the wilting is fast.

(iv) Urine excreted during summer months is hypertonic During the summer, excessive water is lost as sweating. Urine becomes hypertonic to reduce the loss of water in urine and maintains the osmotic concentration of the blood constant.

(v) A person has difficulty in focusing on nearer objects as the age increases With the advancement of age, the elasticity of the lens decreases. It causes the person difficult to focus the nearer object.

(i) Single muscle twitch 

(ii) Apical dominance 

(iii) Hydathodes 

(iv) Parthenocarpy 

(v) Photolysis 

(vi) Micturition

Short day plants: 

• They flower when exposed to day lengths shorter than a certain critical miniminm 

• Do not flower if the dark period is interrupted by a flash of light. 

• They normally flower in the early spring or autumn.

Long day plants 

• They flower when exposed to day lengths longer than a certain critical minimwn. 

• Flowering is stinmiated if the dark period is interrupted by a flash of light. 

• They normally flower in the late spring or early summer

Red muscle fibre: 

• Thin muscle fibres. 

• Contains pigment myoglobin hence dark red in colour. 

• Gets energy from aerobic respiration.

White Muscle fibre: 

• Thick muscle fibres. 

• Light in colour due to lack of myoglobin. 

• Gets energy from anaerobic respiration.

Structure of Artery: 

• Wall is thick and elastic. 

• Lumen is narrow. 

• Valves are absent. 

• Endothe liai cells of tunica are bore elongated. Tunica media is more inuscular and tunica externa is less developed.

Structure of vein: 

• Wall is thin and less elastic. 

• Lumen is wide. 

• Valves are present. 

• Endothelial cells of tunica arc lcss elongated. Tunica media is less muscular and tunica externa morc developed.

Function of artery: Arteries do not collapse due to the fast flow of blood under pressure as they have thick walls.

Function of vein : In veins the blood flows smoothly because of large lumen and the valves prevent backward flow of blood.

Procedure for Haemodialysis: When the kidneys are completely damaged and do not function, the patient often receives haemodialysis (treatment with an artificial kidney). Haemodialysis is the separation of certain substances from blood by use of a selectively permeable membrane.

The pores in the membrane allow some substances to pass through, however, prevent others. The patient is connected to the machine by a tube attached to an artery often the radial artery.

Blood from the artery is pumped into a tube that runs through the dialyzer. The dialyzer is filled with dialysis fluid which contains the same quantities of electolytes and nutrients as normal plasma but contains no waste products. The cellophane tube (a tube bounded by thin membrane) is kept in the dialysis fluid. The pores in the cellophane tube tube do not allow the movement of blood cells and proteins from the blood into the dialysis fluid, but are large enough to allow smaller molecules to diffuse into the fluid. Molecules of waste substances such as urea, ammonia and waste diffuse into the dialysis fluid. Diffusiion of other substances such as glucose, amino acids and electrolytes is prevented by the presence of these substances in the dialysis fluid in the same concentration as in the normal plasma. Now the blood is returned to the patient body through a vein usually the radial vein.

Disease: 

• AMPHY SEMA 

• RENAL CALCULI (KIDNEY STONE) 

• DIARRHOEA

Cause: 

• Air pollution and smoking 

• Precipitates (ppt.) of uric acid and accumulation of oxalate crystals 

• Flagellate protozoa Giardia intestinalis

Symptom: 

1. Wall of alveoli contracts and becomes thin so the capacity of gaseous exchange is lowered. 

2. Severe pam or blockade of the ureter 

3. Loose motion with pain in the stomach

According to Einstein relation

Here C₀ = 16μF, K = 5

(i) When the dielectric of dielectric constant K is introduced between the plates of the capacitor, the capacity increases K times, new capacity = KC₀ = 5 × 16 = 80μF, v₀ = 1000v

(ii) The new potential difference V is given by

V = \(\frac{V_0}{K}\,= \frac{1000}{5}\) = 200V

(i) North pole. 

(ii) The magnetic field strength can be change in electromagnet. But not in permanent magnet.

Heat Capacity: The amount of heat required to increase 1 °C temperature of whole body is called heat capacity. SI unit of heat capacity = Joule/Kelvin

(i) Electric fuse 

(ii) Heating effect of electrical current.

 (i) North pole. 

(ii) The strength of the magnetic field of an electromagnet can be changed according to its use and it will be a magnet till the time current passes through it whereas, the strength of permanent magnet can not be increased and can not be magnetized and demagnetized in an instance.

It varies inversely as the square of distance of separation between them i.e., as the distance between the two bodies increases, the magnitude of the force between them decreases

Heat capacity : Heat capacity of the body is the amount of heat energy required to raise its temperature by 1°C or 1 K.

The S.I. unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (JK^-1).

Gravitation Force. 

Example: A ball placed on a table starts rolling down when the table is tilted

(i) γ-radiations. 

(ii) α and β radiations are deflected by an electric field.

(i) Centre of the circle or the point of intersection of diameters. 

(ii) Centroid or the point of intersection of its medians.

(i) One Newton is the amount of force required to produce an acceleration of 1 ms-2 in a body of mass 1 kg.

(ii)

1N = 1kg x 1 ms^-2

     = 10³ x 10² gm cm^-2

1N = 10⁵ dynes.

There are different types of culture media which are used in plant tissue culture. We use tham as root culture medium, organogenesis medium, cell and callus medium initially. 

Following are the medias : 

1. Ms medium 

2. White medium 

3. B₅ medium 

Ms medium is mostly used in the tissue culture.

(a) (i) Electrons. 

(ii) 5 to 6 V. 

(iii) It is deflected by the electric field.

(b) (i) Nature of the metallic surface 

(ii) Temperature of the metal surface and 

(iii) Surface area of the metal surface. 

(c) (i) These are the electrons which are not bound to the nucleus and are free to move in the metal. 

(ii) Because it finds itself being pulled by the positive charge left behind as it becomes. 

(iii) They can be made to leave the metal surface by (z) Thermionic emission (heating the metal surface) 

(ii) Photoelectric emission (By shining a radiation of sufficient frequency on the metal surface).

(d) ∈_ω = 81 ∈₀

Neutrino: A neutrino is zero rest mass and charge less elementary particle. They have a very weak interaction with matter. They possess energy and momentum.

(i) Rectifier:

It is a device which converts alternating current into direct current.

(ii) Amplifier :

An amplifier is a device which increases the energy of a weak signal by supplying energy from an external source. An amplifier increases the amplitude of a input signal.

(iii) Oscillator:

An oscillator is a device which produces electrical oscillations of adjustable frequency and constant amplitude. An oscillator is basically an amplifier. A part of the output energy is fed back into the L-C circuit to produce sustained oscillations. .

(i) Full wave rectifier : It is a device which produces a unidirectional, pulsating output current for both halves of the ac input voltage i.e., it converts ac into pulsating dc.

(ii) Amplifier: An amplifier is a device used for increasing the voltage, current and pow er of an alternating form by supplying energy from an external source. The amplitude of the output signal is greater than the amplitude the input signal.

(iii) Oscillator : It may be defined as an electronic device which converts energy from a dc source into electrical oscillations of constant amplitude and frequency. For this conversion, an oscillatory circuit like L-C circuit is usually required.

(i) The emission of electrons from a metal surface when heat (or thermal) energy is imparted to it, is called thermionic emission. 

(ii) eV (electron volt); 1 eV = 1.6 x 10^-11 J.

In an unstable nucleus, number of neutrons are more than number of protons. In such a case, a neutron may change to a proton to achieve stability by emitting an electron called beta particle.

Radioactivity : It is the process of spontaneous emission of α, β and γ radiations from the nuclei of atoms during their decay.

Energy changes : 

(i) Burning of a candle: Chemical energy to light energy. 

(ii) Steam engine: Chemical energy of coal first changes to heat energy of steam and then heat energy charges into mechanical energy.

Watch is the common device where a gear train is used.

1 kg = 1000 grams

2 g of hydrogen molecules = 1 mole

1 g of hydrogen molecules = 1/2 mole 

1000 g of hydrogen molecules = 1/2 x 1000 = 500 moles

(i) C + 2H₂SO₄ → 2H₂O+CO₂+2SO₂ 

(ii) Mg + H₂SO₄ → MgSO₄ + H₂↑ 

(iii) C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁+H₂SO₄ → 12C + 11H₂O

(i) The metal which does not react with water or dilute H₂SO₄ but reacts with concentrated H₂SO₄ is Cu. 

(ii) The metal whose oxide, which is amphoteric, is reduced to metal by carbon reduction Pb. 

(iii) The divalent metal whose oxide is reduced to metal by electrolysis of its fused salt is Mg.

(i) The electrolyte is a solution of aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) dissolved in cryolite (sodium hexafluoroaluminate (Ill), Na₃AlF₆). The use of cryolite reduces the melting point of alumina and increases the conductivity of solution. 

(ii) To prevent the heat loss from molten electrolyte.

(i) Galvanization 

(ii) Solder 

(iii) Zinc blende 

(iv) Copper oxide

(i) Alumina (Al₂O₃): It is the main compound yielding aluminium.

Cryolite (Na₃AlF₆): It acts as a solvent and lower the fusion temperature from 2050°C to 950°C.

Fluorspar (CaF₂) : It acts as a solvent and increases the conductivity of electrolytic mixture. 

(ii) Layer of powdered coke is sprinkled over the surface of the electrolytic mixture to prevent the heat loss by radiation and prevents carbon anode from burning in air

(i) Galvanisation 

(ii) Solder 

(iii) Zinc blende 

(iv) Copper oxide

(i) Glacial acetic acid 

(ii) Acetylene 

(iii) Isomerism 

(iv) Ketone