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 Background radiations are the radioactive radiations to which we all are exposed even in the absence of an actual visible radioactive source. Its total dose is not very large , so it does not cause any serious biological damage to us. 

Constitution Day in India is celebrated every year on 26th of November as the Constitution of India was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26th of November in the year 1949 and came into force on 26th of January in 1950.

Established in 1950, the .Planning Commission was set to take up the development of the country in an orderly and planned way. Introduction and Implementation of the Five Year plans aim at improving the socio¬economic status of the citizens. These are both, examples of implementation of Directive principles

The Right to Constitutional Remedies, Article 32, provides for the enforcement and protection of Fundamental rights. This right makes all the other rights effective. It gives the citizens the power to move to the Supreme Court in case of violation of other rights.

By the 44th Amendment to the Constitution, the Right to Property was removed as a fundamental right and instead, a new provision was added to the Constitution i.e., Article 300-A.

Communalism implies a strong sense of belonging to a particular religious community to the exclusion of others. The concept of communalism holds that religious distinction is the most fundamental and overriding distinction that separates a particular community from others. Communalism, as evident from the rise of politics based on religious identity, has been an important factor in the Indian political system. The relationship between communalism and Indian politics was institutionalized in 1909 by the Minto-Morley Reforms and subsequently through the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 which led to separate electorates. Though the system was abolished in 1947, the germs of communalism remained in independent India as well.

A District Panchayat or Zilla Parishad is coterminous with the district. Each district has one Zilla Parishad. This is the top tier of Panchayati Raj constituted at the district level by the Panchayat Samitis or Mandals. Most members of the Zilla Parishad are elected.

The composition of the Zilla Parishad is as follows :

• 10-25 members elected directly by all voters falling within the area of the Zilla Parishad. Approximately 50,000 voters elect one representative. 

• All Chairpersons of Panchayat Samitis falling within the area of the Zilla Parishad. 

• MP’s and MLA’s representing the area. 

• MPs and MLAs whose names are registered in any constituency with the Zilla Parishad area. 

• Women representation. 

• SC/ST representation. 

• OBC representation.

Communalism implies a strong sense of belonging to a particular religious commu-nity to the exclusion of others. The concept of communalism holds that religious distinc¬tion is the most fundamental and over-riding distinction that separates a particular community from others. Communalism as evident from the rise of politics based on religious identity has been an important factor in the Indian Political System.The relationship between communalism and Indian politics was institutionalized in 1909 by the Minto-Morley Reforms and subsequently through the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 which led to separate electorates. Though the system was abolished in 1947, the germs of communalism remained in independent India as well.

Confederation is an association of sovereign member states that by treaty have delegated certain of their competences to common institutions, in order to coordinate their policies in a number of areas, without constituting a new state on top of the member states. It is a permanent union of sovereign states for common action in relation to other states.

There are various causes for the rise of communalism in India:

A Legacy of Past: Communal politics had played its nasty game during the immediate past of independent India. The partition of India was the ultimate outcome of the politics of the British government. Despite the emergence of Pakistan, a large number of Muslims are staying in India. India has adopted the principles of secularism and equality of the people. But communalism as a legacy of past, is continuing and expreshing itself in various form.

Presence of Communal Parties : Religion in India has become an important agency of political socialisation and it is also reflected in the ideology of a number of politial parties. A number of communal and sectarian political parties and organisations are present in India. Same political leaders preach communalism to attain their political goal.

Poverty : Mass poverty and unemployment create a sense of frustration among the people. It generates backwardness, illetracy, ignorance, etc. The unemployed people are easily trapped by religious fundamentalists and fanatics. Such people are used to cause communal riots.

Communalism of Politics : Electoral politics in India has become competitive. Different political parties are not hesitating to use any means for electoral victory. They even create communal tensions and try to take politcal advantage out of it. Concessions are granted to various minority groups for appeasing them.

Cross-Border Factors : Communal tensions in India are sometimes highly intensified due to the rule of two neighbouring theocratic countries. These countries try to create communal problems in the border states. 

For example; the communal problems of Punjab and Nammu & Kashmir are caused due to provocation of Pakistan.

The Social Causes : The two major communities, the Hindus and Muslims in India continue tobe suspicious of each other. The Muslims complain of the threat of Hindu cultural invasion and have become more assertive of their rights. Another cause is conversion of religion which creates negative reactions.

Martin Luther King led the Civil Rights movement in the United States from the mid- 1950’s until he was assassinated in 1968. He was involved in helping to orchestrate the Montgomery Bus Boycott. He was elected to lead the boycott because he was fresh and skilful at commanding an audience. The . boycott led to 382 days of avoiding the buses. In 1957, King, along with other associates, founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to organise a movement known as Black Churches. After 1960, King publicly encouraged students to use non-violent methods during the ‘sit-in’ protests. 

‘The Student non-violent Coordinating Committee’ was formed out of this. In 1963, during the Birmingham, Alabama protests, he was arrested and jailed, and it was here he wrote out his theory of non-violence. After this, plans were made for a massive demonstration in Washington, where he delivered his ‘I have a dream’ speech. By 1968, the years of protesting were wearing thin on King. In the same year, while, he stood on a balcony of a Motel, he was shot and killed by James Earl Ray. The killing of the King, sparked riots and protests across the country. This made way for the emergence of Black Power.

In 1957, Dr. King was elected as the Conference (SCLC), an organization designed to provide new leadership for the now burgeoning civil rights movement. 

In 1963, he led a coalition of numerous civil rights groups in a non-violent campaign aimed at Birmingham, Alabama, which at the time was described as the “most segregated city in America.” It was during this campaign that Dr. King drafted the “Letter from a Birmingham Jail,” the manifesto of Dr. King’s philosophy and tactics, which is a required- reading material in universities worldwide. 

Later in 1963, Dr. King was one of the driving forces behind the March for Jobs and Freedom, more commonly known as the “March on Washington,” which drew over a quarter-million people to the national mall. It was at this March that Dr. King delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech, which cemented his status as a social change leader and helped inspire the nation to act on civil rights. Dr. King was later named as Time magazine’s “Man of the Year”. 

Also in 1964, partly due to the March on Washington, Congress passed the landmark Civil Rights Act, essentially eliminating legalized racial segregation in the United States. The legislation made it illegal to discriminate against blacks or other minorities in hiring, public accommodations, education or transportation areas which at the time were still very segregated in many places. 

The next year, 1965, Congress went on to pass the Voting Rights Act, which was an equally-important set of laws that eliminated the remaining barriers to voting for African- Americans, who in some locales had been almost completely disenfranchised. This legislation resulted directly from the Selma to Montgomery, AL March for Voting Rights lead by Dr. King. 

Between 1965 and 1968, Dr. King shifted his focus towards economic justice- which he highlighted by leading several campaigns in Chicago, Illinois – and international peace – which he championed by speaking out strongly against the Vietnam War.

An end to racism in the United States and called for civil economic rights.

(a) Income of an entrepreneur is residual in nature as entrepreneur bear risk and reward of risk is profit. Profit is income remaining after deducting all the direct and indirect expenses. 

Functions of an Entrepreneur 

1. Risk bearing functions—Every business involves some amount of risks. The production of goods and services is always related to future estimated demands. The future demand is uncertain and unpredictable because it is influenced by changes in fashion, taste, price structure, Govt, policies, etc. Since this upredictable task is undertaken by the entrepreneur. He has to bear the risk. If his estimations prove to be wrong, in the entire business sphere, no other factor of production shares the loss incurred by the entrepreneur. 

2. Originating—The entrepreneur conceives new ideas, new products and new processes. He also develops new techniques with a view to avail to better opportunities of maximizing profit ability in the business. Thus entrepreneur always looks, for changes and modification in business to further improvement. 

3. Policy Making—He is the one who makes plans on which the whole organization runs. He hold regular meetings and makes guideline and distributes the work

b(i)

(ii)

(a) Any substance added to a food item to reduce its quality in order to increase its quantity is called an adulterant. This act of addition of the adulterant in food item is known as food adulteration. 

The addition of adulterant may be intentional or accidental. But generally the adulterant addition is intentional. The major reason for the intentional addition of these adulterants is for increasing the profit margin on the expense of the health of the public or consumer. 

Example— 

1. In the name of original ghee, it is adulterated with vanaspati. 

2. Honey is adulterated with sugar. 

Harmful effects of food adulteration 

1. It leads to serious health hazarding like cancer, cardiac problems, insomnia and paralysis and other neurological problems or even death as well. 

2. It reduces the quality of commodity as well as create economic loss to the consumer. Measure formulated to prevent the problem of food Adulteration in India Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954—It was enacted to eradicate rampant evil of food adulteration and to ensure purity in food articles so as to maintain public health. 

(b) The two methods adopted by commercial banks to advance loans to the general public are as under— 

1. Overdraft—The overdraft facility is allowed to the depositor maintaining a current account with the bank. According to this facility a borrower is allowed to withdraw more amount than what he has deposited. The excess amount so withdrawn has to be repaid to the bank in a short period and that too with interest. The rate of interest is usually charged more than that charged in case of loans. 

2. Discounting of Bills of Exchange—The banks provide financial help to the merchants and exporters by way of discounting their bills of exchange. However, these merchants and exporters must be the customers of that bank. In such facility, the bank pays the amount of bill presented by the customer, after deducting the.usual hank discount. This way, the customer gets the amount of the bill before the date of its maturity. As such, the bank assists its customers to a great extent by accepting their bills and providing them with liquid assets. Usually a bill matures after 90 days or so and then the bank presents it to the acceptor and receives full amount of the bill.

(a) The institution that enjoys the monopoly of note issue in India is RBI (Reserve Bank of India). It is the central bank of India. 

Qualitative Methods of Credit Control— 

1. Credit Rationing—The RBI may also specify a ceiling limit on the maximum level of credit which can be given on the stocks of selected commodities to limit the quantum of credit given to a specific industry or sector of economy. For example—The RBI may prescribe the limit for food credit for each year. This will ensure that excess credit will not flow to this sector of economy. 

2. Moral Suasion—Suasion means to persuade, so it is a method of request and advice to the commercial banks by the central bank. Central bank requests the commercial banks not tdgrant credit for speculative and non essential activities. Since, the ‘central bank’ is the symbol of financial authority and sovereignty, the commercial banks honour such requests. This method proves very effective under normal conditions of market and economy. 

(b) “Any exertion of mind or body undergone partly or wholly with a view to some good other than the pleasure derived directly from the work is called labour.” 

Characteristics of Labour— 

1. The Labourer sells his services (Labour) only—A labourer (worker) sells his services only and not himself. A labourer may or may not agree to do a work. The ‘labour’ factor comes into consideration when he agrees to offer his services on certain terms and conditions. 

2. Labour is highly perishable—If a labourer does not work for a day, his one da^s output will be lost forever. As such the labourer (worker) agrees to work even at a low wage when he feels that his labour is likely to be wasted. Because of this peculiarity, the labourer does not have the same bargaining power similar to his employer. 

3. Human factor—Labour is human factor. Hence, several human considerations are to be kept in mind while dealing with the labour, such as moral considerations, ethical considerations, devotion, motivation (including incentives), family background etc. 

4. Labour is less mobile—The mobility of labour is not so easy. Even the most remunerative employment opportunities do not attract many trained personnel from other countries. This is due to the labourers sentimental attachments to his home and surroundings. The problems of language, differences in living habits and social customs, etc. are some other important factors affecting mobility of labour.

The consumer must perform the following duties :

(i) Consumers must exercise his rights: Consumers have many rights with regards to the goods and services. They must be aware of their rights while buying goods.

(ii) Consumers should not buy blindly: Consumers should ensure that they get a fair and honest deal. They should not take the seller’s words as the final truth. 

(iii) Consumers should not compromise on quality: Consumers should never compromise on the quality of the goods. They should not buy inferior stuff out of greed for cheaper price. 

(iv) Beware of false advertisement: The sellers inform the consumers about their things through the medium of advertisement. The seller’s exaggerate the quality of their goods through advertisement. Therefore, consumers should recognize the truth of the advertisement. 

(v) Do not forget to get receipt and guarantee/warranty card: One should always get a receipt or bill for the things purchased.

The monopoly right of note issue are given to the central bank because of the following reasons (Any two) : 

(i) It insures uniformity in the currency making it easy for people to identify it. 

(ii) It facilitates effective state supervision and therefore regulates the issue of the paper currency by the bank. 

(iii) It creates confidence among people. 

(iv) It enables the government to maintain control over undue credit expansion and avoids danger of over issue.

GDP_MP = Value of output – Int. consumption

= 2500 – 1300

= 1200

NNP_FC = GDP – Depreciation + NFIA – NDOT

= 1200 – 160 – (-30) – (180 - 40)

= 1200 – 160 + 30 – 180 + 40 NI

= National Income = 930 Cr.

The I.U.PA.C. name of acetylene is Ethyne

The I .U .P A. C name of acetylene is ethyn.

Mental illness

(i) It is the abnormal change in thinking, feeling, memory leading to change in behaviour and in the manner of talking. The patient may have partial or total loss of memory, self-de-structive behaviour, hallucination etc. 

Treatements – Psychotherapy, Chemotherap, Electric Shock Treatment (ECT)

(i) Psychotherapy (psychological treatment) : It can help the patient to adjust to his sur-roundings (home, place of work, society). Social therapy is aimed at rehabilitation of the victim. Re-creational activities, involvement in family life, removal of maladjustments can give relief, if not complete cure to chronic mental patients. 

(ii) Chemotherapy : Drugs can cure psychoses fully if started early and used regularly e.g. amphetamines, barbiturates etc. 

(iii) Electric shock treatment (ECT) : It is a crude method, used to relieve severe depression. The introduction of the psychotropic drugs has considerably reduced this method.

import java.io.*; 

import java.util. Scanner; 

class Number{ 

int n; 

public Number(int nn) { 

n = nn; 

} 

public int factorial(int a) { 

if(a <= 1) 

return 1; return a * factorial(--a); 

} public void display() { 

System.out.println(“Number: ” + n); 

} 

} 

class Series extends Number { 

int sum; 

public Series(int n) { 

super(n); 

sum = 0; 

} 

public void calcSum() { 

for(int i = 1; i <= n; i++) { 

sum += super.factorial(i); 

} 

} 

public void display() { 

super, display(); 

System.out.println(“Series sum: ” + sum); 

} 

} 

class Factorial { 

public static void main(String args[ ]) 

throws IOException { 

Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in); 

System.out.print(“Enter the number: ”); 

int niun = sc.nextInt(); 

Series obj = new Series(num); 

obj.calcSum(); 

obj.display(); 

} 

}

(i) class CharacterVowel 

{ 

public void checkering str, char ch) { 

int c = 0, code,i,s; 

str = str.toLowerCase( ); 

int len = str.length( ); 

for (code = 97; code < 122; code+ +) { 

c = 0; 

for (i = 0; i < len; i+ +) { 

ch = str.charAt(i); 

s = (int) ch; 

if(s = = code) c = c + 1; 

} 

ch = (char)code; 

if(c ! = 0) System.out.println(“Frequency of “+ch+ “is” +c); 

} 

} 

(ii) public void check(String si) { int i;

char ch=0, chr=0;

for(i=0;i<s1. length(); i+ +) {

ch = s1.charAt(i); 

if(Character.isUpperCase(ch)) 

chr = Character. 

toLo werCase(ch); 

if((s1 .charAt(i)==’a’) 11 (s1 .charAt(i) = ‘u’) | j(s1 .charAt(i) = = ‘o’)| | (s1 .

charAt(i)==’i’) 

11 (s1 .charAt(i) = = ‘e’)) 

System.out.println(s1 .charAt(i)); 

} 

} 

}

import java.io.*; 

import java.util. Scanner; 

import java.util.StringTokenizer; 

public class Capital{ 

private String sent; 

private int freq; 

public Capital() { 

sent = new String(); 

freq = 0; 

} 

public void input() throws IOException { 

Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in); 

System.out.print(“Enter the sentence: ”); 

sent = sc.next(); 

} boolean isCap(String w) { 

char ch = w.charAt(0); 

if(Character.isLetter(ch) && Character.isUpperCase(ch)) 

return true; 

return false; 

} 

public void display() { 

StringTokenizer st = new StringTokenizer(sent, "" , ?!"); 

int count = st.countTokens(); 

forint i = 1; i<= count; i++) { 

String word = st.nextToken(); 

if(isCap(word)) freq++; 

} 

System.out.println(“Sentence: ” + sent); 

System.out.println(“Frequency: ” + freq); 

} 

public static void main(String args[ ])throws IOException { 

Capital obj = new Capital(); 

obj.input(); 

obj.display();

import java.io.*; 

import java.util.Scanner; 

class EqMat{ 

private int a[][]; 

private static int m; 

private static int n; 

public EqMat(int mm, int nn) { 

m = mm; 

n = nn; 

a = newint[m][n]; 

} 

public void readArray( )throws IOException { 

Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in); 

for(int i = 0; i < m; i++) { 

for(int j = 0; j < n; j++) { 

a[i][j] = sc.nextInt();

} 

} 

} 

public static boolean check(EqMat p, EqMat q) { 

boolean flag = true; 

for(int i = 0; i < m; i++) { 

for(int j = 0; j < n; j++) { 

if(p.a[i][j] !=q.a[i][j]) 

return false; 

} 

} 

return flag; 

} public void print() { 

for(int i = 0; i < m; i++) { 

for(int j = 0; j < n; j++) { 

System.out.print(a[i] [j] + “\t”); 

} System.out.println(); 

} 

} 

public static void main(String args[ ]) throws IOException { 

Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in); 

System.out.print(“Number of rows: ”); 

int rows = sc.nextInt(); 

System.out.print(“Number of columns: ”); 

int columns = sc.nextInt(); 

EqMat obj 1 = new EqMat(rows, columns); 

EqMat obj2 = new EqMat(rows, columns); 

System.out.println(“Enter elements for first matrix:”); 

obj1.readArray(); 

System.out.println(“Enter elements for second matrix:”); 

obj2.readArray(); 

System. out.println(“First Matrix:”); 

obj1.print(); 

System.out.println(“Second Matrix:”); 

obj2.print(); 

if(check(obj1, obj2)) 

System.out.println(“Both Matrices are Equal”); 

else 

System.out.println(“Matrices are not Equal”); 

} 

}

import java.io.*; 

import javautil.*; 

class ArmNum 

{ 

private int n; 

private int 1; 

public ArmNum(int num) 

{ 

n = num; 

i = 0; 

for(int i = n; i! = 0; i/= 10) i++; 

} 

public int sumPow(int i) 

{ if(i < 10) 

return (int)Math.pow(i, 1); 

return (int)Math.pow(i % 10, 1) + sumPow(i/10); 

} 

public void isArmstrong() 

{ 

if(n == sumPow(n)) 

System.out.println(n+" is an Armstrong number."); 

else 

System.out.println(n+ " is not an Armstrong number."); 

} 

public static void main(String args[])throws IOException{ 

Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in); 

System.out.print("N ="); 

int num = sc.nextInt(); 

ArmNum obj = new ArmNum(num); 

obj.isArmstrong(); 

} 

}

import java.io.*; 

import java.util.*; 

class MatRey{ 

private int arr[][]; 

private int m; 

private int n; 

public MatRev(int mm, int nn) { 

m=mm; 

n = nn; 

arr=newint[m][n]; } 

public void fillArray( )throws IOException

{ Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in); 

System.out.println("Enter matrix elements::"); 

for(int i = 0; i < m; i++) { 

for(int j = 0; j < n; j++) { 

arr[i][j] = sc.nextInt(); 

} 

} 

} 

public int reverse(int x) { 

int rev = 0; 

for(int i = x; i != 0; i /= 10) 

rev = rev * 10 + i % 10; 

return rev; 

} 

public void revMat(MatRev p) { 

for(int i = 0; i < m; i++) { 

for(int j = 0; j < n; j++) { 

this.arr[i] [j] = reverse(p.arr[i] [j]); 

} 

} 

} 

public void show() { 

for(int i = 0; i < m; i++) {

for(int j = 0; j < n; j++) {

System, out. print(arr[i][j] + "\t"); 

}

 System.out.println(); 

} 

} 

public static void main(String args[])throws IOException { 

Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in); 

System.out.print("Enter number of rows::"); 

int x = sc.nextInt(); 

System.out.print("Enter number of columns::"); 

int y = sc.nextInt(); 

MatRev obj 1 = new MatRev(x, y); 

MatRev obj2 = new MatRev(x, y); 

obj1.fillArray(); 

obj2.revMat(obj 1); 

System.out.println("Original Matrix is::"); 

obj1.show(); 

System.out.println("Matrix with reversed elements"); 

obj2.show(); 

} 

}

class Record 

{ 

protected String n[]; 

protected int m[]; 

protected int size; 

public Recordfint cap) { 

} 

public void readarray() { 

} 

public void display() { 

} 

} 

class Highest extends Record { 

private int ind; 

public Highest(int cap) { 

super(cap) 

}

public void find() { 

ind = 0; 

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) { if(m[i]>m[ind]){ 

ind = i; 

} 

} 

}

public void display() { 

super.display(); 

System.out.println("Highest marks are::" +m[ind]); 

System.out.println("Students who score the highest marks 

are::"); 

for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) } 

if(m[i] == m[ind]) { 

System.out.println(n[i]); 

} 

} 

} 

}

import java.io.*; 

import java.util.*; 

class Rearrange { 

private String wrd; 

private String newwrd; 

public Rearrange() { 

wrd = new String(); 

newwrd = new String();

}

public void readword() throws IOException { 

Scanner sc = new Scanner(System.in); 

System.out.print("Enter the word:"); 

wxd = sc.next();

}

public void freq_vow_con() { 

wrd = wrd.toUpperCase(); 

int v = 0; 

int c = 0; forint i = 0; i < wrd.length(); i++) { 

char ch = wrd. char At(i); 

if(Character.isLetter(ch)) { switch(ch) {

}

case 'A': 

case'E': 

case T: 

case 'O': 

case 'U': 

v++; 

break; 

default: 

C++; 

} 

} 

}

System.out.println("Frequency of vowels: "+v); 

System.out.println("Frequency of consonants: "+c); 

}

public void arrange() { 

String v = new String(); 

String c = new String(); 

wrd = wrd.toUpperCase(); 

for(int i = 0; i < wrd. length(); i++) { 

char ch = wrd.charAt(i); 

if(Character.isLetter!ch)) { 

switch(ch) { 

case 'A': 

case'E':

case T: 

case 'O': 

case 'U': 

v += ch; 

break; 

default: 

c + = ch; 

} 

} 

}

newwrd = v + c; 

} 

public void display() { 

System.out.println("Original word:" + wrd); 

System.out.prfntln("Rearranged word:" + newwrd); 

} 

public static void main(String args[])throws IOException { 

Rearrange obj = new Rearrange(); 

obj.readword(); 

obj.freq_vow_con(); 

obj.arrange(); 

obj.display(); 

} 

}

According to the Mountbatten plan, the Princely States were given the option of joining either of the two Dominions, which is, India or Pakistan or they might also choose to remain independent.

Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan also called as Bacha Khan was popularly known as ‘Frontier Gandhi’. Fie was a follower of Mahatma Gandhi and his ideals.

Camp David Accords, agreements between Israel and Egypt signed on September 17, 1978 that led in the following year to a peace treaty between those two countries, the first such treaty between Israel and any of its Arab neighbors. Brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter between Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat and officially titled the “Framework for Peace in the Middle-east,” U.S. presidential retreat at Camp David, Maryland. Sadat and Begin were awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1978 for their contributions to the agreements. 

The eventual outcome of these “Framework for Peace in the Middle-east,” had three parts : 

1. a process for Palestinian self-government in the West Bank and Gaza, 

2. a framework for the conclusion of a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel, and 

3. a similar framework for peace treaties between Israel and its other neighbors. The Prime Minister and the Israeli Knesset agreed that a transitional self-governing Palestinian authority was to be elected to replace Israeli political and military forces in the occupied territories.

(i) Platinum 

(ii) Acetic acid 

(iii) Nitric acid

(i) Duralumin → Aircraft body 

(ii) Solder → Electrical fuse 

(iii) Brass → Decorative articles 

(iv) Stainless steel → Surgical instruments

(i) Cryolite acts as a solvent and lower the fusion temperature from 2050°C to 950°C.

(ii) A layer of powdered coke is sprinkled over the surface of the electrolyte to reduce the heat loss by radiation and prevent the carbon rod from binning in air. 

(iii) Cathode

(a) According to Doctrine, if a ruler died without an heir to succeed him his adopted son neither inherit the throne nor the title, and in such cases, the state was to be annexed to the British empire in India. This caused a lot of discontent among Indians. States which became victims to this doctrine are Jhansi, Satara, Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Udaipur and Nagpur. 

(b) (i) Indian Association 1876—In Bengal. 

(ii) East India Association 1866—In London. 

(c) Swadeshi and Boycott, national education and passive resistance. 

(d) Lord Curzons Argument: The area of Bengal was too large and it was difficult for the British to administer efficiently. Hence according to Lord Curzon, Partition of Bengal was a administrative necessity. 

(e) Urdu was used as a court language in the United Province (U.P.). On a demand in 1900, all petitions were allowed to be submitted in Hindi, this caused resentment among Muslims leading to formation of the league. 

(f) Contributions of INA: 1. The INA uprisings inspired the Naval revolts in Bombay in February 1946. 

2. Trial of INA officers attracted sympathy and British had to set them free though they were found to be guilty. 

(g) 33 billion dollars. 

(h) Britain, China, France, Russia and USA. 

(i) The two similarities between Fascism and Nazism are: 

1. Both Mussolini and Hitler aimed at restoring the status and dignity of their nations by making them strong powers. 

2. Both aimed at providing strong, stable and efficient Governments. 

3. Both uphold one party and one man rule, to believe in aggression, to glorify war, anti-democracy.

(a) Failure of the League of Nations: 

1. All the great powers were not its members. The United States was not a member at all. In 1925, Germany joined the organization while Russia was allowed entry in 1934. Later, both Germany and Japan left the League. The League, therefore, lacked universal representation. 

2. The permanent members always opposed decisions which went against their own interests. 

(b) Aggressive Nationalism of Germany:Germany’s desire to become a world power and the adoption of policy of militarisation greatly contributed to the Second World War. Hitler, after gaining power, embarked on the path of expansion of German Empire. He annexed Austria, occupied Rhineland and proceeded to occupy Czechoslovakia. Thereafter, he set his eyes on Danzia and Poland. It was the aggressive nationalism of Hitler which led to the Second World War. 

(c) Policy of Appeasement: Appeasement meant a policy of conciliating an aggressive power at the expense of some other country. The Western Powers followed the policy of appeasement because they felt that the dictators had a real cause of grievance and if their grievances were removed they would leave others alone. The Western Powers wanted to check the rising tide of Communism and Russian Bolshevism. They, therefore allowed Germany to re-arm and to remilitarise the Rhineland and capture Austria and Czechoslovakia. But for the Western countries policy of appeasement, Fascism or Nazism could not have survived so long and would not have been able to unleash the Second World War. The League of Nations watched helplessly when Italy attacked and annexed Abyssinia.

(a) If there is deadlock between the two houses while passing an Ordinary bill in the parliament, the President calls for joint session of both the houses. 

(b) Answer has not given due to out of present syllabus. 

(c) Mr. Gurudev must be from among, the persons having special knowledge or practical experience in literature, art, science and social service. 12 Members can the President nominated to the Rajya Sabha. 

(d)

(e) (i) In day to day functioning of the government the cabinet advises the president and not the council. 

(ii) Cabinet meets regularly for the policies and programmes of the government while council meets rarely.

(f) Answer has not given due to out of present syllabus. 

(g) When a vote of no-confidence is passed against it such a government has lost the confidence of the house then it has to resign. 

(h) Judicial Review: The Supreme Court has the power to review any judgement pronounced or order made by it. It is not bound by its own decisions and orders. It possesses the rights to review the judgement and, if found necessary, it reverses the earlier decisions. Both the Supreme Court and the High Courts are empowered to declare any law or act of any body or individual ultra vires if it violates the spirit of the constitution. 

(i) Supreme Court is the protector and the final interpreter of the constitution. Any citizen whose fundamental rights are violated may move to the Supreme Court for the enforcement of his rights. That is why it is said to be the guardian of the constitution. 

(j) Civil Courts, Criminal Courts and Court of revenue.

(a) (i) In 1877, he lowered the maximum age limit for the I.C.S. examination from 21 to 19 years, thus making it impossible for the Indians to compete for it,

(ii) He introduced Vernacular Press Act and Indian Arms Act, Both these were passed to pursue the policy of racial discrimination. 

(b) (i) The Indian National Association. 

(ii) The East India Association. 

(c) Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Annie Besant. 

(d) The movement was launched after the First World War by two Ah brothers, Muhammed Ah and Shaukat Ah to protest against the injustice done to the Muslims of Turkey and to protest against the threat to the position and the dignity of the Turkish Sultan. 

(e) (i) The Act gave enormous powers to the government to redress pohtical activities, and allowed detention of pohtical prisoners without a trail for two years.

 (ii) The pohce could search a place and arrest any person they disapproved without warrant. 

(f) (i) The aim of the army was to overthrow the British Raj in colonial India, with Japanese assistance.

(ii)To estabhsh an Interim Government. 

(g) (i) Lahore Session and the Demand for Complete Independence : The failure of the British Government to give Dominion Status to India and several other developments in 1929 hardened the Congress attitude. So, at its Lahore Session, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru in December, 1929, the Congress passed resolution of ‘Puma Swaraj’, and also took steps to launch a programme of Civil Disobedience. 

(ii) Gandhi’s Eleven Demands : On 30th January, 1930 Mahatma Gandhi in a statement, put forward Eleven Demands to correct two injustices done to the Indians, but Gandhiji’s demands were declared to be unrealistic by the Viceroy. 

(h) England and France followed a policy of appeasement towards Germany. They did not care to enforce the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, so Hitler started to flout it. When Hitler attacked and annexed Austria, Britain and France did not try to stop him. The heads of four nations – Germany, Italy, Britain and France met at Munich on September 28, 1938 and decided to hand over Sudetanland to Germany. The Czechs were persuaded by them to accept the Munich Pact in the name of world peace. But actually, they were appeasing Hitler at the cost of Czechoslovakia. 

(i) In Asia, Japan harboured expansionist desires. It attacked China in 1931 and annexed Manchuria. China appealed to the League of Nations to declare sanctions against Japan, Britain and France leading members of the League ignored the appeal. In 1933, Japan left the League of Nations and started occupying the British and American properties in China. Britain and France followed the policy of appeasement under which they ignored aggressive policy of Japan, thinking that Japanese could be used to weaken China. The Japanese were determined to dominate the Far East. America warned Japan of the dire consequences but Japan ignored. She joined “Rome-Berlin-Tokyo” Axis. She also attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbour. 

(j) (i) It has set up educational planning centres which prepare specialists in the theories and methods of education. For example, International Institute of Educational Planning in Paris. 

(ii) Four main areas of focus to provide basic education for all, to expand access to basic education, improve the quality of basic education and education for the 21 st century.

(а) Britishers introduced Enghsh education as some Indians with English education were needed to work at the lower levels of administration. But it became one of the most important factors in the promotion of national consciousness. 

(i) It brought the advanced knowledge of the world to the people of India. Because of this, Indian leaders themselves made efforts for the spread of English education. 

(ii) Knowdedge of Enghsh proved to be a boon as the young men educated through Enghsh medium were introduced to the liberal ideas of the west, such as freedom, democracy and nationalism. They were highly impressed by the teachings of Garibaldi, Mazzini, Rousseau etc. 

(iii) As India wras a very vast country with different languages, Enghsh was a common language and proved to be a hnk language through which people living in different regions began to communicate. So, English was responsible for the unification of such a vast country. 

(iv) The educated Indians played a leading role in spreading nationalistic ideas. They also started many religious and social reform movements which helped in uniting the Indians. It was through these movements that they came to know about their pohtical rights. 

(b) (i) He condemned evil customs like sati, purda, child-marriage, forced widowhood, polygamy, female infanticide and discrimination against women. 

(ii) He began a struggle against the caste distinctions, prevailing in the society including the evil of untouchability. 

(iii) Raja Ram Mohan Roy laid the foundation of an English school and spread of education of modern subjects, so that western knowledge could come within the reach of Indian students. 

(c) (i) Introduction of railways in India revolutionised the socio-economic life of the people. Beside, communication became quicker and journeys more comfortable and cheaper. 

(ii) The telegraph and postal system provided by the British proved helpful to organize an all India movement which otherwise would have been impossible. 

(iii) The Railway network spread throughout India helped to fight famines and thus surplus produce of one area could be transported to famine stricken area rapidly. This raised the economic status of the people and give them courage to fight for their rights.

(a) Control over Executive : The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers are collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha. They remain in office as long as they continue to enjoy the confidence of the Lok Sabha, by simple majority. 

The Parliament exercises its control over the executive as given below : 

(i) Various Motions : The Question Hour, Call Attention Motion, Half an Hour Discussion are the devices through which the House seeks information from the Government. 

(ii) Adjournment Motion : With the passing of the Adjournment Motion, the routine business of the House is postponed. The House then discusses Government’s acts of omission or commission on a matter of urgent national importance. 

(iii) Censure Motion and the No-Confidence Motion : Censure Motion, expressing disapproval of the policies of the Government may be moved against the Council of Ministers or an individual Minister in the Lok Sabha. Adoption of the Censure Motion against the Government would result in the resignation of the Council of Ministers. But if it is against an individual Minister as the case may be, then only the individual Minister has to resign. A No-Confidence Motion against the Council of Ministers may be moved in the Lok Sabha by a leader of the Opposition supported by at least 50 members. It is taken up for discussion within ten days. If it is passed, the Government has to resign. 

(b) The Rajya Sabha performs the following functions, as per its Powers in relation to the Lok Sabha : 

• According to Article 249 if the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution on any topic of national interest to empower the parliament to make law, on any topic enlisted in the state list, with a majority of votes, then the parliament gains authority to make that law. 

• It can create any new All India service by passing a resolution in favour by a majority of a 2/3rd majority. 

• It has the power to pass the declaration of emergency. In the case of a proclamation of emergency, if the Lok Sabha is lying dissolved or it has been dissolved with the proclamation of emergency, the Rajya Sabha holds the command to continue beyond the stipulated period of 2 months. 

(c) Judicial Powers : 1. The Rajya Sabha can impeach the President on the charge of violating the Constitution. 

2. It can pass a special address to remove a judge of the Supreme Court or High Courts. 

3. Along with the Lok Sabha, the Rajya Sabha can pass resolutions for the removal of some high officers like the Attorney General of India, Comptroller and Auditor General, Chief Election Commissioner etc. When such a resolution is passed, the President can remove these officers from office.

Electoral Powers : 

1. The elected members of the Rajya Sabha can take part in the election of the President. 

2. The members of the Rajya Sabha can take part in the election of the VicePresident. 

3. They can elect the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha from amongst its members.

(a) Appellate Jurisdiction means that the High Court has power to accept appeals against the decision of District Court in civil as well as criminal matters. 

The High Court hears the appeal in the following cases : 

1. Against the judgement of Assistant Sessions Judge, Chief Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate when the punishment exceeds four years. 

2. Against the judgement of Assistant Sessions Judge, where the sentence of imprisonment to a convict exceeds seven years. 

3. A sentence of death must be confirmed by the High Court. 

4. When an acquittal is granted by Sessions Judge in a State case, the State can take the appeal to the High Court. 

(b) The High Court is a Court of Record. This imphes that: 

1. Its judgements are kept as a record, and are used as precedent. It is binding on all subordinate courts in the State. But in other High Courts, the judgement of a High Court can be used only in support of an argument in a case before it. 

2. If a person commits contempt of a High Court, it has the authority to punish him. The Supreme Court or the Parliament cannot deprive the High Court of this power. 

(c) Judicial Review is the special power vested in the Judiciary by which it examines the constitutionality of the laws, passed by the legislature and the acts of the government. If in view of the court, any executive order or any law passed by the legislature violates any provision of the constitution, it declares it unconstitutional.

If the President was to be elected by the people, he could become a rival centre power to council of ministers. This would be against the parliamentary system with ministerial responsibility. Since the membership in the two houses of Parliament was likely to be dominated by one party, election of the President merely by a majority of members of the union Parliament could not represent the constituent states of the Union.

(a) (i) The Prime Minister is the channel of communication between the Cabinet and the President. He conveys Cabinet’s decisions to the President, and keeps him informed of all matters of the government, national or foreign. 

(ii) The Prime Minister advises the President to summon and prorogue the sessions of the Parliament, and to dissolve the Lok Sabha. 

(iii) The Prime Minister advises the President in appointing or removing the High officials. 

(b) There is no provision for categories of Ministers in the Indian Constitution but as per old practice there are four categories of Ministers : 

(i) Cabinet Ministers : They are the most important members of the Council of Ministers. They are usually senior leaders, have a right to attend Cabinet meetings and participate in the decision making. They hold important portfolios like Home, External Affairs, Railways, Defence, Finance, etc. 

(ii) Ministers of State : They do not have independent charge of Ministry, they do not attend Cabinet meetings until invited to do so. But as per recent practice some of them are entrusted with independent charge. 

(iii) Deputy Ministers : They have to help senior Ministers. They do not attend Cabinet meetings, unless specially invited. 

(iv) Parliamentary Secretaries : They assist the Ministers in the Parliament. 

(c) (i) The sessions of the Parliament are summoned by the President on the advice of the Cabinet. The initiative in this matter is taken by the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs. The Cabinet decides dates for holding sessions and for proroguing the Parliament. 

(ii) The special address that the President delivers to the Parliament is prepared by the Cabinet and the President simply reads it. 

(iii) The Cabinet gets the bills drafted. The members of the Council of Ministers introduce, explain and defend the bills in the Parliament and get them passed. 

(iv) The President issues ordinances at the instance of the Cabinet.

(a) Function of the Prime Minister in relation to the President: 

1. Prime Minister is selected by the President. 

2. Prime Minister is the head of the Union Council of Ministers whereas the President is the head of the executive powers of the Union. 

3. The Cabinet Ministers are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. 

(b) Parliament exercises an effective control over the Council of Ministers by: 

1. Interpolation (The Question Hour): 

The purpose of the question is to obtain information on a matter of public importance or to ventilate a grievance. Question Hour provides on opportunity to members to hit hard at the Ministers. 

2. The Zero Hour: During zero hour members raise all types of questions, without any permission or prior notice. 

3. No Confidence Motion: The council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly. It the Assembly passes a No-confidence motion, then the council of Minister must resign.

(a) (i) Queen Victoria Proclamation declared that the British Government would not annex the Indian states. 

(ii) The rights of the princes and rulers were reduced and their military forces were limited, their continual existence was guaranteed. 

(iii) Doctrine of Lapse was abolished and right to adoption was recognized. 

(b) 

(i) The First War of Independence roused national feelings and paved the way for the rise of the National Movement. 

(ii) The sacrifices of great Indian leaders and general people served as the source of inspiration for the struggle for freedom and served as the source of inspiration for the rise of the National Movement. 

(iii) Due to the First War of Independence the Indian people realised that unless they wake up from the slumber and work with the feeling of self respect, unity, freedom and nationalism the country will remain under foreign, this realization rise the nationalistic feelings.

(c) Due to First War of Independence the following changes in the administrative set up of the British territories were introduced: 

1. The right of rule was transferred to British Government from the East India Company. 

2. British Government had lost faith in Indian soldiers, all important posts in army were given to British officers. 

3. The Board of Directors of the East India Company had abolished and the responsibility of Government of India was passed on to a separate ministers known as the Secretary of State for India.

4. The Governor General was ma

 The melting point of ice decreases with the increase in impurities in it.

It is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Two legislative powers of President of India are: 

• The President has the power to summon and prorogue the two Houses of Parliament. He can also dissolve the Lok Sabha. 

• The President can address each House separately or jointly.