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Regionalism is a political ideology that focusses on developing a political system based on one or more regions. It aims to strengthen loyalty to a distinct region. It prioritizes local interests over national interests. It can be positive and negative. Positive regionalism means love towards one's culture, language, and region whereas negative regionalism is an excessive attachment to a single region, thereby posing a threat to the unity and integrity of the country.

Syntax: void functionname(datatype,datatype)

{

statements;

}

Syntax:

void functionname()

{

statements;

}

A function depending upon whether arguments are passed or not and whether a value is returned or not can be classified into the following five categories.

• Functions with no arguments and no return value
• Functions with no arguments and with return value 
• Functions with arguments and no return value.
• Function with arguments and return value.
• Recursive functions.

The declaration of a function before it is used or called is known as function prototype.

Eg: int demo (int, int, int);

A challenge is not just a problem. It is a difficulty that carries within an opportunity for progress. Once we overcome a challenge we go up to a higher level than before. The serious challenges that democracy faces in different countries of the world for smooth running of government are called challenges to democracy.

Few challenges faced by democracy in several parts of the world:

Foundational Challenge: At least one-fourth of the globe is still not under democratic governments. Countries that do not have democratic setup face the foundational challenge of making a transition to the democratic style of government. They need to lay the foundation in terms of laws and policies that would be followed under the democratic setup. This involves—bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, keeping military away from controlling government and establishing a sovereign and functional state. 

Challenge of Expansion: Countries already having the democratic setup face the challenge of expansion. Such countries need to ensure that more and more social groups, regions and institutions follow democracy in their functioning. This involves—ensuring greater power to local governments, extension of federal principle to all the units of the federations, inclusion of women and minority groups etc.. It also means that less and less decision should remain outside the domain of democratic control. Most countries including India and US face this kind of challenge. 

Challenge of deepening: This challenge is faced by every democracy in this form or another. Every democratic country needs to strengthen the institutions that ensure democracy. This should happen in such a way that people can realise their expectations of democracy. This involves— strengthening of the institutions and practices of democracy and bringing down the control and influence of rich and powerful people in the making of governmental decision.

The broad challenges to democracy are:

(i) Foundational Challenge: One-fourth of the world still doesn't have a democratic form of government. These countries face this challenge while changing into a democratic government. This involves major steps like establishing a sovereign state and mowing down the non-democratic authorities. Systems will take years to change as they have taken years to develop initially. Nepal, for instance, recently changed to democracy but is yet to develop in many ways.

(ii) Challenge of Expansion: The challenge of expansion is faced by most democracies because it involves giving greater power to the local governments, including women and minority groups, etc., thereby applying the principles of democracy to all regions, societies, and communities. In India, for instance, some economically backward communities are yet to get political powers which clearly demonstrate the challenge of expansion.

(iii) Deepening of Democracy: This challenge involves strengthening the organizations and practices of democracy, usually happening in a way that people can realize their expectations of it. Due to their varying expectations in different societies, however, it is becoming difficult especially in the case of elections.

Two challenges to the working of democracy are:

(i) Corruption: Corruption occurs when government officials use their position and authority to serve your own interests and engage in bribery, embezzlement, nepotism, favouritism etc. All these practices lower the morals and undermine the principles of democracy.

(ii) Communalism: Communalism occurs when people of the same religion, culture have similar economic, political and social interests. Thus, such communities have diverging interests and ideologies which can clash with the interests of another community. The political parties often use such situations to further their own interests, adding to the tension

Casteism: People from different castes form different communities and they have different interests. Under the caste system, work is divided on the basis of the caste of the person. The high-paying and respectable jobs are usually given to the higher caste groups and low-paying jobs are given to the low caste groups. Castes have led to caste discrimination in the country.

Communalism: Communalism means promoting the ideas of a particular religion with a view to divide the society on religious grounds. It believes that people belonging to one religion belong to one community. The British followed the policy of ‘divide and rule’ and created differences in two major communities, the Hindus and the Muslims. This sowed the seeds of communalism in the society.

1. Actual parameters:

The data that are passed by the calling function as arguments/parameters are known as actual arguments, i.e., the arguments which are present at the time of function call.

2. Formal parameters: 

There are the names of the arguments /parameters in the function header of the called function. Formal parameter values are used by the called function body.

The two main factors are:

(i) Illiteracy: Illiteracy poses serious problems because many people are uneducated and ignorant about their basic rights and the constitution of India.

(ii) Poverty: Poverty hampers the principles of democracy where every man, woman, and child must be treated equally because there is an unequal distribution of income and unemployment. These are the major causes of poverty.

सुख-दुःख की छूत दूसरों को भी लग सकती है।

बुझे हुए दिल और सूखे हुए चेहरे धर्म, फिलासफी और सदाचार के प्रतीक माने जाते हैं। जिस चित्र में सूरज का चमकता हुआ मस्तक, चाँद का हंसता हुआ चेहरा, तारों की झिलमिलाती हुई आँखें, पेड़ों का नृत्य, पंछियों का संगीत, बहते हुए पानी की तरंगें तथा खिलते हुए फूलों की बहारे अपनी शोभा दिखा रही हों, वहाँ हम बुझे हुए दिल और सूखे हुए चेहरों के साथ स्थान नहीं प्राप्त कर सकते।

हमारा जीवन एक शीशायर है। हम जो भी करते हैं, उसका प्रतिबिंब एक ही समय में सैकड़ों लोगों पर पड़ता है। हर आदमी पूर्णसंग्रह का अंश है। वह जो कुछ अपने लिए करता है, उसमें दूसरों का भाग होता है। दूसरे लोग जो कुछ करते हैं उससे वह प्रभावित होता है। इसलिए आदमी का जीवन उसकी अपनी व्यक्तिगत जायदाद नहीं है।

मनुष्य के व्यक्तिगत जीवन का प्रभाव उस तक ही सीमित नहीं रहता। वह दूसरों पर भी पड़ता है। सुख-दुःख की छुत दूसरों को भी लगती है। हम उदास रहेंगे, तो हमें देखकर दूसरे भी उदास होंगे। हम खुश रहेंगे, तो हमें देखकर दूसरे भी खुश होंगे। इस तरह खुश रहना केवल एक जरूरत ही नहीं, यह एक नैतिक उत्तरदायित्व भी है।

लेखक की दृष्टि से सबसे बड़ा काम जीवन जीने का है।

लेखक का मत है कि मनुष्य को हर स्थिति में प्रसन्न रहना चाहिए। प्रसन्न रहने की कला सीख लेने पर अन्य किसी भी कला को सीखने की आवश्यकता नहीं होती। वे फ्रांसीसी लेखक आंद्री गीद (Andre Gide) के कथन का उल्लेख करते हुए कहते हैं कि खुश रहना मनुष्य की जरूरत ही नहीं है, बल्कि यह उसका नैतिक उत्तरदायित्व है। हमारे सुख-दुःख की छूत दूसरों को भी लगती है। इसलिए हमारा कर्तव्य है कि न हम उदास हों और न दूसरों को उदास करें। हम खुश रहेंगें तो अन्य भी खुश रह सकते हैं। एक अच्छे समाज के लिए खुश रहना हमारी नैतिक जिम्मेदारी है।

लेखक सबसे बड़ा काम जीवन जीने को मानते है।

प्रसन्न रहने की कला सबसे आवश्यक है।

फ्रांसीसी लेखक आंद्री गीद ने लिखा है कि – ‘खुश रहना केवल जरूरत नहीं है, यह एक नैतिक उत्तरदायित्व भी है’।

B. चीनियों ने

आंद्रो गीद फ्रांसीसी लेखक है।

सही विकल्प है A. बुद्धिमान

दुनिया का सबसे बड़ा बुद्धिमान जो सबसे ज्यादा खुश रहता है।

जो सबसे ज्यादा खुश रहता है, वह दुनिया में सबसे बड़ा बुद्धिमान है।

The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of Sanskrit literature. Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining Nav-Ratna (Nine luminaries) at his court. Kalidasa and Amarasimha adorned his court. Kalidasa was the greatest and most famous poet of this period. He wrote Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Raghuvansham, Meghaduta and Kumar Sambhava. Amarsimha wrote Amarakosa, a Sanskrit dictionaiy. Panini was a great grammarian. Ashtadhyayi, the greatest work on Sanskrit grammar was written by Panini during this period.

Fa-Hien’s account forms the historical source of information about Chandragupta II. Chandragupta II was a great conqueror. His greatest achievement was to destroy the power of the Shaka from Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra permanently. He gained control over three important parts of Bharuch, Cambay and Sopara. He also assumed the title Shakari or the conqueror of the Shakas. He was a great patron of art and literature. He had at his court, the famous Navaratnas, the most learned men of his time. Poet Kalidasa was one of them.

Medicine, astronomy grammar philosophy, and vedic literature were taught in Nalanda University, Subjects.

This is a picture of Nalanda University.

The most important historical source of information about Samudra gupta is the Allahabad Pillar Inscription which was composed by Harisena. According to the inscription Samudra gupta was a great conqueror and he won a- series of wars in north and south India. He defeated as many as 9 rulers in northern India and 12 rulers in eastern Deccan and southern India. But Samudra gupta did not want to gain permanent possession of his conquests in the south because he knew he could not control south India from his capital. He was happy with the tributes collected from the defeated princes of the south, bringing home large stores of treasure.

1. False.

2 . False.

3. True.

4. True.

5. True.

It was written by Chanakya (Vishnugupta). It contains 6000 shlokas divided into 15 sections and 180 subjects. It is remarkable for political clues, diplomacy and administration.

The Stupa is a semi-spherical solid dome-like structure made of unburnt bricks and stones. The Sanchi stupa was made by Ashoka around 3rd century BC.

The Gupta empire was divided into provinces. These provinces were further divided into various districts. There were district councils which helped the provincial governors. The provinces were known as Bhuktis and the districts were known as Vishayas. Each district was divided into villages called gramas. Each Bhukti was placed under the charge of an Uparika and each Vishaya under a Vishayapati. There were many officers who assisted the king in his work. The provinces were under the charge of princes. They were assisted by officials called Kumarmatyas. The villages were looked after by Gramapati.

Chandragupta I is called the real founder of the Gupta Empire because he was first independent and important ruler of this dynasty. He raised the power and prestige of his empire through conquests and marriages. He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja,ie, the king of kings’. He started the Gupta Era in 320 AD which marked the date of his accession.

Scientists, mathematicians, astronomers and physicians flourished in the court of the Gupta rulers. Two well- known mathematicians and astronomers of this period were Aryabhatta and Varahmihira. Aryabhatta said that the earth moves round the sun and at the same time it moves on its axis. The books authored by Aryabhatta are Aryabhatiya and Suryasidhanta. Varahamihira wrote Brihat Samhita, an Encyclopedia on Astronomy. Indian mathematicians knew the use of zero. The Indians also used the decimal system.

The Stupa is a semi-spherical solid dome-like structure made of unburnt bricks and stones. The Sanchi stupa was made by Ashoka around 3rd century BC.

The Gupta kings were Vaishnavas, but they were tolerant towards all religions. Brahmanism had come to the forefront. The two gods who commanded the worship of the majority were Vishnu and Shiva. Religious sacrifices were performed. Hinduism became the most powerful religion and the Gupta kings gave donations for building of temples. Buddhism no longer received the royal patronage, though it continued to be the second most important religion.

Art and architecture gained great heights during the Gupta Period. Many temples were built. The temples at Deogarh, Sanchi and Bhittargaon are very famous.The 29 cave temples at Ajanta near Aurangabad in Maharashtra and Bagh in Madhya Pradesh were also built during this period. The walls of these caves were covered with paintings (called murals or frescoes). Two main centers of art were Mathura and Samath. The image of the seated Buddha in a yogic pose is one of the masterpieces of art of this period.

1. Astronomy— A tremendous progress was made in the field of astronomy. Aryabhatta who was a known a astronomer discovered the movements of earth i.e. it moves around the sun on it axis. He also found out the causes of lunar and solar eclipses. 

2. Mathematics— The discovery of the zero and decimal system was made in use during Gupta period. 

3. Medicine— Vegabhatta and Dhanvantri were famous physicians and surgeons who served the people during this period. 

4. Metallurgy— Mehrauli pillars throw light on the iron metallurgy of this period. The pillar was built in the 4th century CE has not rusted in the last few centuries. The 25 meter high copper statue of Buddha and the numerous gold coins testily the skill in metal casting.

These are the most important source of Mauryan history. These are the oldest and the best preserved and most precisely dated epigraphic records of India.

The Ashoka’s inscriptions (Stone Edicts) leave the message of love with mankind and all living creatures. It exhorted people to live with peace. Might is not the ultimate solution to any problem, as it ends in destruction and ruthless killings.

Name the oldest language of South India. OR Name the oldest Dravidian language.Tamil.

Ashoka sent learned Buddhist scholars, his son Mahendra and daughter Saughamitra to outside India to spread message of Buddhism

In context of becoming of Ashoka to be a practicing moralist soon after the Kalinga War,

 The given heads are explained as under: 

(a) Fundamental Principles of Dhamma: The Prakrit word ‘Dhamma and the Sanskrit word ‘Dharmci have the same meaning.Dharma never meant exactly ‘religion’. It Implied such concepts as justice, virtue, morality, law and duty. The fundamental principles of Ashoka’s Dhamma are as follows: 

(a) Purity of Domestic Life: Ashoka presented himself to be a father-figure. He speaks of his people as his children and directs them, “to respect their parents, elders and .teachers.” the superiors, on the other hand, were required “to treat their inferiors, including servants, slaves and all living creatures with kindness.” An important duty assigned to all persons was that of truthfulness. 

1. Toleration: Ashoka had a secular attitude while justifying with different religions prevailing in his regime. The people were required to refrain from speaking ill of their neighbor’s faith. He exhorted that all religions were supposed to attain self-control and purity of mind. 

2. Sanctity of Life: Ashoka exhorted his people to follow the path of No animal should be slaughtered for sacrifice. He undertook public welfare works like— construction of roads and hospitals for both the men and animals. 

3. True Ceremonial: Ashoka condemned all sorts of meaningless and worthless rituals performed on the occasion of childbirth, wedding, death or departure on journey. He declared that the True Ceremonial was “kindness to living creatures and Liberality to asceics and Brahmins”. People should spread Dhamma in all directions. That is the best ceremony and the best gift. 

(b) True Nature of Dhamma: “The Dhamma preached by Ashoka is Buddhism.” Undoubtedly, Ashoka’s personal religion was Buddhism, but he did not impose his religion ^on his subjects. Ashoka’s Dhamma was basically a Universal Religion.

The important reasons for the downfall of the Gupta empire are following.

1. Skandagupta successors were week.

2. They could not protect the empire from the repeated onslaughts of the Huns.

Ashoka invaded Kalinga in 

(a) 261 BC

Kautilya (Chanakya) was a learned Brahmin of Taxila, who later on became a prominent diplomat in the kingship of emperor Chandragupta Maurya. The ‘Arthashastra’ was written by Kautilya.

Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta and ruled upto 273 BC. He conquered many parts of South India after defeating sixteen rulers. There was a revolt in Taxila between Ashoka and other sons of Bindusara. He maintained friendly relations with Hellenic world or Greek and received many gifts.

Liberal grants were given to encourage education and Gupta established Nalanda University.