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Observance of Direct Action Day The elections to the Constituent Assembly under the Cabinet Mission Plan were held in My 1946, seat of the Congress 212 out of 298, Muslim League won 73 seats. The League apprehensive of the overwhelming strength of the Congress demanded appointment of two different constituent assemblies. On 27th July, 1946, Jinnah addressing the All India Muslim League attached the cabinet Mission Plan in general and Lord Wavell in particular and also charged him for playing in the hands of the Congress. 

Muslim League withdraw its early acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan and announced the programme of Direct Action day. The working committee of the Muslim League met on 30th July and fixed 16th August as the Direct Action Day throughout the country. It would be observed all over India by holding meetings, taking out processions and organizing big rallies. 

However, on that day the worst holocaust took place at Calcutta. During the four days that followed Muslims and Hindus indiscriminately murdered each other. Women and children were killed in broad daylight. Arson, rape, murder and pillage were rampant. More than 4,000 people lost their lives and 100,000 residents were left homeless in Calcutta. This violence sparked off further religious riots in the surrounding regions of Noakhali, Bihar, United Provinces (modern Uttar Pradesh), Punjab, and the North Western Frontier . Province. These events sowed the seeds for the eventual Partition of India.

NAM stands for Non-Aligned Movement. The term “non-alignment” was coined by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru during his speech in 1954 in Colombo, Sri Lanka. In this speech, Nehru described the five pillars to be used as a guide for Sino-Indian relations, which were first put forth by Chinese Premier, Zhou Enlai called Panchsheel (five restraints). These principles would later serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement.

A significant milestone in the development of this movement was the 1955 Bandung Conference, a conference of Asian and African states hosted by Indonesian President, Sukarno. Sukarno has given a significant contribution to promote this movement. The attending nations declared their desire not to become involved in the Cold War and adopted a “declaration on promotion of world peace and cooperation”, 

which included Nehru’s five principles : 

• Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty. 

• Mutual non-aggression. 

• Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs. 

• Equality and mutual benefit. 

• Peaceful co-existence. 

Six years after Bandung conference an initiative of Yugoslav president Tito led to the first official Non-Aligned Movement Summit, which was held in September 1961 in Belgrade.

Panchsheel or peaceful co-existence was adopted at the Bandung conference. Four principles of Panchsheel are : 

• Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty. 

• Mutual non-aggression. 

• Mutual non-interference in each other’s internal affairs. 

• Equality for mutual benefit. 

• Peaceful co-existence.

The primary objective of the Direct Action Day was to protest the rejection of the proposed Muslim-majority Pakistan and assert its demand for a separate Muslim homeland.

On March 23, 1933, the newly elected members of the German Parliament (the Reichstag) met in the Kroll Opera House in Berlin to consider passing Hitler’s Enabling Act. It was officially called the ‘Law for Removing the Distress of the People and the Reich.’ If passed, it would effectively mean the end of democracy in Germany and establish the legal dictatorship of Adolf Hitler.

The ‘Non-Alignment movement’ was based on the principles of Panchsheel

(a) Hindustan Lever Ltd. is having a sole objective of entering the water purifier business as to make the product extremely affordable so that it remains attractive to all income groups, along with it company wants to sell the idea to consumers who are living in the small metros, towns and cities so that it does not remain an urban phenomenon. 

(b) Hindustan Lever Ltd’s competitors sell their product in middle income segment. Hindustan Lever Ltd. will not be able to affect the business of its rivals because they are operating in different segments. Company wants to reach those customers who are conscious about both price and health. 

(c) Hindustan Lever Ltd will maintain its identity by introducing new patented technology solution and create a new business model. 

Hindustan Lever Ltd has not entered into the bottled-water segment because already the market is flooded With competitors using the same technique. Hindustan Lever Ltd wants to remain attractive to all income groups, it wants to produce a new patented technology, solution and create new ideas which will have better growth potential and huge benefit to the consumer.

Advantages of detergents over soaps : 

• Detergents can be used with hard water also whereas soaps cannot be used. 

• Detergents do not require vegetable oils or fats for their preparation, thus they help in saving fats and oils for human consumption. 

• Detergents can even be used with acidic water whereas soaps cannot be used. 

• Detergents are more soluble and have better cleansing action than soaps.

Matter waves or de-Broglie waves are the  waves associated with moving particles.

Moderator : It slows down the neutrons to thermal energies through elastic collisions between its nuclei and fission neutrons.

(i) The function of moderator is to slow down the neutrons to thermal energies due to collision between the nuclei and neutrons produced in fission. 

(ii) The function of control rods are used to control the rate at which fission takes place, control rods are of cadmium which can absorb neutrons and thus control the fission reaction. 

(iii) Coolant is used to remove the heat which is released inside the reactor.

DDT is non-biodegradable.

Cuticle the wax-like layer on the epidermis of leaves which reduces transpiration.

The number of Spinal nerves in a human being are 31 pairs.

(A) 31 pairs

The correct option is A. 31 pairs

(i) Red cross 

(ii) Hepatic artery [Hepatic Portal Vein can also be the answer because the type of blood is not specified]. 

(iii) 46 [This part of the question must not be under name the following]. 

(iv) Sclera / sclerotic layer / sclerotic coat / scleroid 

(v) Cuticle

(i) Human reproductive system

(ii) 5 – Oviducal funnel 6 – Cervix 

(iii) Oestrogen, Progesterone 

(iv) 2 (Fallopian tube) for fertilization 3 (Uterus) for implantation 

(v) 1 – Vasecomy (in males) 2 – Tubectomy (in females)

(i) In brain, outer portion contains cyton which gives a grayish colour hence called as gray matter, while axon is inside. In spinal cord, cyton’is inside forming gray matter and axon is outside forming white matter. 

(ii) Dynamic balance – semicircular canal Static balance – utriculus and sacculus (vestibule) 

(iii) When a person moves from dark lighted area to brightly lighted area, visual purple of rods is bleached reducing their sensitivity and pupil constricts to reduce the amount of light entering eyes. This is light adaptation. When a person moves from brightly lighted area to dark area, visual purple of rods which were earlier broken due to bright light regenerates and pupil dilates to allow more light to enter. This is dark adaptation. 

(iv) Development of fruit without fertilization, e.g., Apple, banana, tomato. 

(v) 

• Eliminate open defecation by constructing community toilets. 

• Neat and Clean India

(i) 

1 - Umbilical cord 

2 - Placenta 

3 - Amniotic fluid filled in amniotic cavity

(ii) Functions of the part labelled 2, i.e., placenta, are as follows :

1. Placenta also acts as an important endocrine gland that secretes a number of hormones.

2. Placenta acts as a barrier preventing the entry of pathogens and toxins in the body of foetus.

(iii) The part numbered 3 is the amniotic fluid filled amniotic cavity. The embryo is inside the amniotic cavity and is surrounded by amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid acts a shock absorber and protects the embryo from any injury and also prevents its desiccation.

(iv) Gestation, also referred as pregnancy, is the time period from conception to the birth of a baby. The normal gestation period for the developing human embryo is approximately 9 months + 10 days, i.e., 280 days. 

(v) A male embryo will have the sex chromosomal complement as XY, whereas a female embryo will have XX.

(i) 1. Umbilical cord 2. Placenta 3. Amniotic cavity/Amniotic fluid 

(ii) Functions of Placenta: 

1. Transfer nutrients and oxygen from mother’s blood to foetus. 

2. Releases hormones called oestrogens, progesterone. 

(iii) Significance of Amniotic Fluid: 

1. Protects the foetus against jerks, mechanical shocks, and injury. 

2. Allows foetus movements. 

3. Keeps the pressure even, around the foetus. 

4. Prevent sticking of foetus to the amnion. 

(iv) Gestation : The full term of development of the embryo in the uterus. In a developing human embryo gestational period is of 280 days. 

(v) Male embryo = XY 

Female embryo = XX.

The diagram represents the Prophase stage (Late prophase stage) : 

The stage is Late prophase as there is no nucleolus and cell organelles like Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum have become inconspicuous, nuclear envelope is shown disintegrated into small vesicles and the two asters leave reached the two poles.

(i) Colour blindness is an X-linked inheritence. Women have two Xchromosomes. so even when one X-chromosome carry colour blindness, the other X-chromosome over comes the abnormal trait Whereas men have only one Xchromosome. So when it is affected the man becomes a colour blindness. 

(ii) Medulla oblongata controls the involuntary activities like respiration, heart beats etc. So any injury to this part of brain arrests these movements and cause death. 

(iii) Menstrual cycle occurs due to rupture and shedding oi the endometrium lining of the uterus. When an ovum gets fertilised the endometrium gets thickned, and vascularized to house the embryo. So during the whole term when the embryo/foetus is in the uterus, menstrual cycle stops temporarily. 

(iv) Presence of nucleus would occupy space and reduce the oxygen carrying capacity. Nucleus is also not required as a mature RBC does not divide. Mitochrondria is absent so that oxygen is not consumed by the RBC and all the oxygen is transported to target areas. 

(v) Arteries carry blood from heart. With every pump of heart blood flows with a jerk and pressure through it.

(i) Natality – Number of live births per 1000 per year. Mortality – Number of deaths per 1000 per year. 

(ii) Stoma – The opening in the stomata through which transpired water and respiratory gases pass. Stroma – It is the part/region in the chloroplast where dark reaction of photosynthesis takes place. 

(iii) Acromegaly – Overgrowth of certain parts of body like cheek bones etc. due to oversecretion of growth hormone in adults. Cretinism – Dwarfism and mental retardation due to undersecretion of thyroxine in children. 

(iv) Transpiration – Stomata/cuticle/lenticels. 

Guttation – Hydathodes. 

(v) Diabetes mellitus – Undersecretion of insulin due to which level of glucose increases in blood. 

Diabetes insipidus – Undersecretion of Antidiuretic hormone due to which reabsorption of water from kidney tubules becomes less.

(i) 1. Pituitary gland. 

2. Thyroid gland 

3. Pancreas 

4. Adrenal gland 

(ii) Thyroxine. It regulates basal metabolism of the body. 

(iii) Islets of Langerhans. 

(iv) Because it controls the secretions of all the other endocrine gland. Hypothalamus controls it. 

(v) Adrenal medulla (part of Adrenal gland.)

(i) Ganong’s potometer 

(ii) Transpiration 

(iii) The process in which water is given out in the form of vapour through the aerial parts of the plant. 

(iv) 1. The small twig can not remain alive for a long time. 

2. Introducing a single air bubble is practically very difficult. 

(v) The movement of the air bubble shows the amount of water transpired by the twig in a given time. 

(vi) 1. Cuticle 2. Stomata 3. Lenticel

(i) Menopause 

(ii) Urochrome 

(iii) Hepatic portal vein 

(iv) Inguinal canal 

(v) Pollution 

(vi) Excretion 

(vii) Nucleotide 

(viii) Mutation 

(ix) Active absorption 

(x) Plumonary veins

The Congress accepted partition under the Mountbatten plan for several reasons : 

• They felt that by accepting the Plan they would get the time to settle in and ensure peaceful and immediate transfer of power. 

• The communal situation of the country was very precarious and accepting the partition was the only way to come out of the situation. 

• The Congress was convinced that if the partition was rejected, the League’s continuous agitation would disrupt the working of the Constituent Assembly. 

• The Congress believed that non-acceptance of the Plan would lead to delay of the transfer of power.

1. Peaceful and immediate transfer of power. 

2. Getting rid of undemocratic means. 

3. Communal situation in the country. 

4. League’s negative tactics. 

5. Threat to the unity of India. 

6. Alternative of accepting a loose federation. 

7. Threat of civil war.

Why Congress accepted the Partition : 

The partition of India was a part of the Mountbatten Plan, which was announced on June 3, 1947. The plan was accepted by both Congress and Muslim League for different reasons. 

The Congress accepted the plan of partition due to following reasons : 

Due to communal riots the situation was taking a worst turn. In order to avoid further bloodshed among Hindus and Muslims, Congress accepted the partition of India. 

The experience of working with the Muslim League had convinced the Congress that the League had aimed at the Interim Government to obstruct and not to cooperate and that having a joint administration with the League was not feasible. 

The only alternative of partition was a federation with a weak center which could not face disruptive forces. After Partition, a smaller India with a strong center was more desirable. 

The Congress leaders felt that the partition would remove separate electorate and many undemocratic procedures which were implemented due to the demand of the Muslim League. 

If the Congress would have not accepted the Partition, the transfer of power would have been delayed, which may have plugged India into another civil war and disintegration of country.

Tagore’s present visit is not his first visit. In 1878 when he was only seventeen years old, his brother brought him to Europe. Though at that time his knowledge of English was not sufficient, he had heard of great poets, heroes and European literature. Italy was Tagore’s first introduction to Europe. He reached Brindisi through a steamer. He was deeply impressed by the beautiful and mysterious scenery of Brindisi, which was a small and quiet town at that time. Tagore, at that small age of seventeen, was fascinated by the ambience of Italy, i He wanted to enjoy the beauty of Italy more but his brother was worried about his studies in England. He calls England a great country but at that time he could not appreciate it. He was left alone to face the winter of England where the birds were silent and sunlight was rare. The people stared at him.

Miss Proserpine is a woman of about thirty with a sharp tongue and ready wit. She is the true representative of the middle class who inspires pity as well as admiration.

She is MorelTs typist and we later learn that she is in love with him. Like all women of lower, middle class she is efficient, industrious and very sensitive to self-respect.

Proserpine is romantic and ambitious. Like any other woman who is easily attracted by handsome men, she gets attracted by handsome Morell. Her love for Morell is derisively described as “Prossv’s complaint”. It is form Candida that we learn how much she is sacrificing to be near to her object of love. She is serving Morell on a much lower salary than what she was getting elsewhere. She even does menial work in his home. Morell himself is unaware of her love for him. Even Marchbanks fails to recognize her love as he believes that no woman can love a ‘windbag’ like Morell.

She is full of jealousy, too. She does not like MorelTs praising his wife. She tells Lexy Mill that Morell should not always talk of Candida. She is of the opinion that a man should be able to love his wife without making a fool of himself about her. She angrily remarks :

Candida here, and Candida there, and Candida everywhere. It’s enough to drive anyone of their senses to hear a woman raved about in that absurd manner merely because she’s got good hair and a tolerable figure.

She is intelligent and quick-witted. She is fully aware that Lexy Mill has no mind of his own. She points out to him that he is only imitative. She says that he tries to imitate Morell in whatever he says and does. In her encounters with Burgess she proves to be quick-witted. She does not tolerate the insulting behaviour of Burgess and calls him “a silly old fathead”.

There is no doubt that she works hard and does her best to satisfy Morell. She works without any complaint. As she belongs to the lower middle class, it is seldom that she gets a chance to enjoy good things of life. So, at the supper hosted by Burgess, she takes champagne forgetting her oath never to touch wine. It is so because a person of her class cannot afford to drink champagne. As ‘ she drinks too much, she is intoxicated and makes a fool of herself by talking incoherendy, stumbling and striking the door.

In short, Proserpine is a minor character and yet she plays crucial role in exposing some characters. She is primarily used by Shaw to air his views on the prevalent, defective system of education.

When Proserpine goes out Burgess and Marchbanks are left alone. Burgess asks Marchbanks if he has noticed anything strange in Morell. Marchbanks plainly tells him that he has not noticed any oddity in Morell. Then Burgess throws a hint that Morell has gone mad. Marchbanks is shocked to hear this. Burgess then adds that Morell is as mad as a here in the month of March. With uneasiness Marchbanks says that Morell can be said to be so due to his opinions which are different. Burgess, slightly encouraged, tells him that that day Morell called him a scoundrel and then he shook hands with him. Still unbelieving Marchbanks asks him what Morell said to him. Burgess now tells him that Morell called himself a fool and Burgess a scoundrel. He asks Marchbanks if a sane man can talk in this manner. Before Marchbanks answers, Morell’s voice is heard from outside, calling for Proserpine. This puts an end to their conversation.

(i) The speakers are in the drawing room of Morell. Morell and Eugene have agreed to ask Candida to choose either of them – Morell or Eugene. When this is conveyed to Candida she is furious at the suggestion. 

(ii) Morell is so much mentally tortured by Eugene that he begins to believe that Candida has a very soft comer for Eugene. That is why he asks Candida to choose any one between the two of them.

(iii) Marchbanks offers Candida his weakness, his desolation and his heart’s need. 

(iv) After hearing Marchbank’s offer Candida declares that she would give herself over to the weaker of the two – Morell and Eugene. 

(v) As they wait for Candida to make her choice. Morell becomes so much frightened that he loses the power of concealing his anxiety. Eugene too becomes so much tense that he does not move a muscle. 

(vi) Candida says that she will give herself to one who is the weaker of the two – Morell and Marchbanks.

When Marchbanks and Proserpine are busy talking to each other Burgess comes in. As soon as he comes he says that Marchbanks must be feeling bored with none else to talk to except the typist. This remark infuriates^Proserpine who does not relish this remark. She retorts immediately. She says that now Eugene would have the benefit of his polished conversation. The words are spoken satirically because Burgess is a vulgar, coarse and guzzling man. Angrily Burgess says to her that he has not addressed his remarks to her. Proserpine now loses self-control. She has a sharp tongue and ready wit. She calls Burgess “a silly old fathead”. Burgess, as it is clear at many points, looks down upon, the poor working people. He refuses to talk to Proserpine because she belongs to lower strata of life. He threatens Proserpine to report the matter to Morell. Unable to bear this Proserpine goes out of the room.

(i) Morell and Burgess are present in the drawing-room of James Morell. Morell is angry with Burgess for paying low wages to his workers. When Burgess says that he has owned he was wrong. Morell is not satisfied. He says that it is nothing. He questions him if he has raised his wages or not. 

(ii) Morell tells us that three years ago when Burgess met him. he called Morell a big fool. Burgess confesses that he did call Morell a fool. 

(iii) Morell is shocked because he can’t believe that Burgess who did not pay even living wages to workers could become a model employer. 

(iv) To prove that he has become a model employer Burgess says that now he does not employ women. He has dismissed them. The whole work is now done by machinery. Moreover, no worker is paid less than sixpence an hour. 

(v) Morell is overjoyed to hear this. He says that if one sinner repents there is more joy in heaven than thousands who are just and God-fearing. 

(vi) Burgess has made these changes because the county council that helped him to get his contract accepted, compelled him to do so.

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Bagla Kunj 

Khandari 

Agra 

10th 

April, 2011 

Dear Savita 

I was happy to receive your letter and learn about your new pet that is a dog. Dogs are really good pets and the way you described him, it feels as if he is very obedient. You have asked me to write about my new pet, its habits etc. 

Well, my pet is really an unusual one. My dad bought it just a month ago from New York. It is a platypus. It is a little weird but really cute. It is bluish green in colour, has strange eyes, a cute nose and a flat mouth like swan. 

My platypus is well trained also. We usually keep him open but it has a small house in the garden that was lovingly built by my brother and me. My brother loves it a lot more than I do, and it is for the same reason that the duty to bathe it has been given to him, whereas I am responsible for taking it on a daily work early in the morning. Initially we didn’t know what to give it for food so we fed it with dog food and believe me, my platypus loves it. It also loves eggs but we give it eggs only once a week. My platypus does nothing special except for playing some sweet music by hitting its tail on the floor. We all play a lot with it and it’s really wonderful to have it around especially when we come from school. I love my pet a lot. I wanted a little help from you. We have yet not decided its name, so if you can think of some very good name, 

please do inform me. Give my regards to uncle and aunt and love to Akash. 

Your loving friend 

Amita

A single highly coiled tube where sperms are stored, gets concentrated and mature is known as Epididymis.

Unary operators work on a single operand. Binary operators act on two operands.

Unary operators work on a single operand. 

Binary operators act on two operands.

The output of programming segment is :

2.0 

3.0

Hitler attacked Russia in 1941, to rescue supplies of food and oil from the Russian territories of Ukraine and the Caucasus. 

According to Hitler, a war against Russia would acquire Lebensraum (“living space”) in Eastern Europe to ensure the survival of Germany for generations to come. It would relieve acute labour shortage and all these would combine to leave Germany in an unassailable global position of power. 

The consequences of the war was : 

1. The operation blundered because the blitzkrieg was not fast enough. 

2. The kind of force the Soviet Union could pull together was underestimated. 

3. An underestimation of the cold winter

The reasons for the defeat of the Axis powers in the Second World War : 

There were many reasons for the defeat of the Axis powers in the war which are given below :

Americans helped Britain and other Allied powers in all possible ways. In March 1941, the U.S. Congress empowered the U.S. Government to help the Allied Powers with arms against the Axis Powers by passing the ‘Lend-lease Act’. America thus, became the ‘Arsenal of Democracy’. As a result from 1941, America with her huge armaments came forward to help the Allied powers against Hitler. In 1941, in the North-Atlantic Conference, Roosevelt and Churchill accepted the Eight point Programme of war aim for the Second World War. Till the end of the war, they tried to observe those principles.

The combined resources of America, Russia and Britain were so great that it was impossible for the Axis powers to win. The Russians reconstructed their industries and continued production of war material to a large extent. It has been estimated that, by 1944 they had four times as many tanks as the Germans and could put twice as many men in the field. America manufactured over 70,000 tanks and 20,000 aircrafts a year, with which the Germans and the Japanese could not compete at all.

The Axis Powers also made a number of tactical mistakes which proved detrimental to them. For example, Japan failed to realise the importance of aircraft carriers and concentrated more and more on battleships. Japan did not possess the reserves of men and materials to meet the counter attacks which she deliberately invited. On the other hand, the United States was in a position by December 1941, to produce new ships, aeroplanes, guns and trained men in unlimited number. Hitler made a blunder by starting a winter campaign in Russia. As a result, the German army faced a terrible loss of manpower. In Normandy also the German army had to face terrible losses. The retreat in Normandy thus, led to disasters in other battle-fields.

While declaring the war, Hitler and his advisers failed to understand that the war against Britain would involve the whole British Empire and its resources. Thus, the war for Germany became too stretched defeat. Japan also made the same mistake. In the opinion of the military historian Liddel Hart, they became stretched out far beyond their basic capacity for holding their gains.

The Second World War had brought colossal destruction to Europe. Every participating country was economically exhausted after the war. During the Second World War, many political leaders of the western European countries had seen the destructive effects of national self-interest. They advocated more economic and political co-operation among the European states so as to avoid wars in the future. 

After the Second World War, it was widely believed that European economic recovery could be quickened by a co-operative effort among the European states. There was also a growing conviction that in the modem competitive world, the small nation-states could not be economically viable. 

In 1948, the European economy began to revive. From 1950 on wards, European economic growth became rapid. 

There are a number of factors which can explain the rapid economic recovery of Europe : 

The small European states could compete with the two economic giants, Russia and the United States, only through the removal of tariff barriers between themselves, economic co-operation and the utilization of their economic resources on a continental scale. 

Economic recovery was helped by the changes in Government policies. Before the war, most European Governments adopted the laissez-faire policy. After the Second World War, most of them tried to stimulate the economic growth of their own countries by more Government investments. In Britain, the Beveridge Report was adopted and it meant that the British Government would make heavy investment in developing the welfare services in Britain. 

Growth in world trade also helped economic recovery. After the war, many European countries had realized the disastrous effects of tariffs on inter-European trade. Trade between Europe and the developing countries in Asia and Africa also increased after the war. 

Scientific and technological advances after 1945 also helped economic recovery. Both chemical and electrical engineering industries made rapid advances during and after the war. The demand for these new products ensured continuing prosperity in the post-war years. 

The most important factor in assisting speedy economic recovery in the immediate post-war years was the injection of foreign aid into the European economy.

After World War II, European leaders brought together Russia, England and America. They formed Allied force with other countries and eventually Axis force was defeated. However, the war time unity among the Allied powers was lost. They failed to come to an agreement about the terms and conditions to be imposed on Germany. Russia wanted to have a Government in Germany where communists would take lead. But America and England favored otherwise. In such a difference of opinions, Russia and western powers took different steps and this resulted in creation of two German states, namely Federal Republic of Western Germany and German Democratic Republic in the East. 

The gradual deterioration in the relationship between Russian and western powers brought European leaders together and developed the idea of greater cooperation. The chief objective behind the cooperation was to strengthen politically, economically and socially. The first step towards economic cooperation took place after Benelux Customs convention of 1944. The Signatory Governments of this convention agreed upon free trade. Moreover, to finance European countries, America sponsored the ‘Economic Cooperation Act’ in 1948 and in 1960 this organisation was transformed into ‘Organisation for European Economic Cooperation and Development’. 

The Cold war of America and Russia also brought European countries together. The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) formed on April 4,1949 was also a step that brought together America, Britain, France, Italy, Canada, Belgium, Denmark, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, Iceland and Netherlands. It was a defense organisation against the Soviet Bloc.

Detente was a permanent relaxation in international affairs during the Cold War rather than just a temporary relaxation (the so-called “thaw”). Detente is a term usually associated with the relations between America, Russia and China. 

The reasons for the detente were : 

• The horrors of Vietnam shocked people. 

• There was a growing fear of a nuclear holocaust. 

• China – she was fearful of her isolation in the world. China was also worried by her worsening relations with USSR. 

• USA – she realized that war meant the massive cost of weapons production and maintaining a huge armed force. A peaceful relationship with the USSR would be very beneficial to USA especially after the cost of the Vietnam War. 

USSR – USSR was spending a huge amount on weapons at the expense of basic household goods. Living standards were poor and USSR was also aware that her relationship with China was far from good while USA was trying to improve hers with China. To make the event a permanent one, USSR and USA established in 1963 a – hot-line after Cuban Missile Crisis; both agreed to only use underground tests for nuclear explosions; in 1969 the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) started; in 1972 Richard Nixon, USA president, visited Moscow; in 1973-Leonid Brezhnev, USSR leader, visited Washington 1974-Nixon visited Moscow. In 1971, a move was made to improve relationships when China invited an American table tennis team to China. Hence, the term “Ping-pong” diplomacy. USA’s response was to support China’s entry into the U.N.

There were a number of reasons for the defeat of the Axis Power in the Second World War : 

The German army was regarded as invincible at the initial stage of the war, but the myth gradually came to an end. At first, the Allied Powers could not understand how to cope with the German Blitzkrieg. But very soon they realized from their early failures how to tackle this problem. The Allied Powers under-stood the importance of air support and air carriers. With superior air and naval power, they won the battles of Atlantic and the Pacific. 

The basic weakness of the Axis Powers was their shortage of rubber, cotton, nickel and, after mid-1994, oil. To win the war, constant supply of raw materials were urgently needed and in this point, the Axis Powers were very much handicapped. 

It was very difficult for the Axis Powers to contest with the combined resources of the USA, USSR and the British Empire. In Germany’s case, Mussolini was partly a burden because of his incompetence. This became a constant drain on Hitler’s resources. On the other side, the Soviet Russia reconstructed their industries and continued production to a large extent. It has been estimated that by 1944 Russia had four times as many tanks as the Germans and could put twice as many men in the field. America manufactured over 70,000 tanks and 1,20,000 air crafts a year with which the Germans and the Japanese could not compete at all.

The death of Stalin in March, 1953, was probably the starting thaw because new leaders now came into the forefront. The thaw showed itself in several ways. The signs were shown when Korean War came to an end by a peace treaty and the end of the war in Indo china. The Russians also made important concessions in 1955 when they agreed to wind up their military base in Finland. Russian leader, Bulgarian attended a summit meeting in Geneva where he met the American President Elisenhower. Then, Russia lifted her veto power on the admission of sixteen new members to the United Nations. Khrushchev paid a visit to Tito and thus, quarrel with Yogoslavia was healed to some extent. The Come in form’ was abandoned, suggesting more freedom for the satellite states. 

The signing of the Austrian State Treaty on May 1955 was another step forward for thaw. After the Second World War, Austria was divided into four zones of occupation with the capital Vienna in Russian zone. Austria was allowed her own government because she was vied not as a defeated enemy but as a state liberated from the Nazis. Three Western occupying powers organized the recovery of their respective zones but Russia collected reparation in the form of food supply. Early in 1955, the Austrian Government persuaded the Russian Government to be more cooperative. Russia had an apprehension of a merger between West Germany and western Austria. 

The Russian Government became cooperative and signed an agreement. As a result, all occupying troops were withdrawn and Austria became independent. But Austria was not to be united with Germany, her armed forces were restricted and she was to remain neutral in any dispute between Western and Eastern Bloc. This meant that Austria could join neither the NATO nor the European Economic Community. The Austrians were not happy for the loss of German-speaking people of South Tyrol which were given to Italy. 

In fact, the thaw was only partial. Khrushchev sometimes followed conciliatory policy and sometimes a policy seemed to be a threat to the Western Bloc. He did not show any desire to relax Russian control over the satellite states. When the Hungarians revolted in Budapest against the Communist Government, the movement was crushed by Russian tanks in November 1956. 

Khrushchev now signed the Warsaw Pact in 1955 with the satellite states just after Western Germany as admitted to the NATO. The Pact was a mutual defense agreement with the satellite states. Apart from this, to put the Western Bloc on pressure, Russia successfully tested in inter continental ballistic missile and launched first space satellite ‘ Sputnik-1’.

The Berlin Blockade had two objectives : 

1. To prevent the creation of a West German state. 

2. Western powers to be forced to withdraw from Berlin.

While the UN did not participate in the decision making process of the military campaign carried out in its name, it played a role then and continues to play a role by allowing the US Government to appropriate the United Nations name as a camouflage cover for the actions of the US Government. The UN authorized Member States to intervene in the Korean War, to form the “Unified Command”, to use the UN flag along with the flags of the member states participating in the “Unified Command”, and it authorized the US to appoint a Commander in Chief for the “Unified Command”. 

Under pressure from the US, the UN failed to exercise its obligation to supervise the actions of the “Unified Command”. Subsequently, the UN continues to evade fulfilling its obligations by continuing to allow the US to claim that it is the “United Nations Command” in Korea and in failing to provide its political supervision over what the US has done and continues to do in Korea in the name of the UN.