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• Psychology is a vast field studying behavioural aspects of mankind and it started as a branch of Philosophy. It evolved as a separate branch in the 19th century.
• The first attempt to define Psychology was made based on the terminology. The word ‘Psychology’ is derived from two Greek words: ‘Psyche’ (soul or mind) and ‘Logos’ (science or branch of knowledge).
• Rational sciences establish facts based on observation and experimentation. However, neither soul nor mind can be observed. Hence, the definition of Psychology changed over time.
• In the late 19th century, Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory at Leipzig University. He defined Psychology as the study of consciousness.
• Sigmund Freud defined Psychology as the study of the unconscious while John Watson defined it as ‘Science of human behaviour’.
• The latest definition of Psychology is the ‘Study of human behaviour and processes.’
• Psychology as a discipline evolved over time.

I agree with the above definition because Psychology studies unconscious behaviour. A person himself may not be aware of unconscious aspects of his personality even when it may have a significant impact on his thoughts and behaviour. Psychology enables us to understand this unconscious side of human beings and hence, I agree with this definition. However, the limitation of the definition is the unconscious mind. It can’t be observed directly and hence is difficult to study it. Furthermore, Psychology is also concerned with the study of the conscious mind.

• The latest definition of Psychology explains that it is the study of human behaviour and mental processes. 
• Important terms in this definition are behaviour, mental processes, and the scientific method. 
• Behaviour is the reaction of an organism to various stimuli present in the environment. 
• It is either overt or covert. Overt behaviour can be seen directly and includes responses such as walking, talking, dancing while Covert behaviour cannot be seen directly and includes responses such as thinking, feeling, etc. 
• The mental processes consist of thinking, memory, forgetting, emotion, motivation, attention, and perception. In a scientific study, experiments are conducted 
• in a controlled environment. It enables researchers to study sample populations and generalise certain observations to the entire population.

• No, I don’t agree with this definition since the soul refers to the spiritual part of a person; which is believed to exist in some form even after death. 
• Psychology is not a spiritual science. Since it studies the mental activities and behaviour of living beings, this definition seems to be incorrect.

(i) Reason: Rest is the symbol in the S-O-R Model.

(ii) Reason: The rest are the three types of Doshas.

(iii) Reason: The rest relate to Tamasi’s qualities.

(iv) Freud 

Reason: The rests are Indian saints and philosophers.

• In the fifth century B.C., sage Patanjali described deep thought about Psychology in Yogsutra. 
• He developed the theory of Ashtanga yoga. 
• The eight aspects of Ashtangyoga are Yama, Niyama, Aasana, Pranayam, Pratyahar, Dharana, Dhyan and Samadhi.
• It helps us to control our wishes and desires.

(i) False

(ii) False

(iii) False

(iv) True

(v) True

• Nisha and Seema are two of my friends. During the examination, Seema gets extremely tensed. She is not able to concentrate. She even fails to sleep and eat peacefully.
• She needs the constant emotional support of her parents and friends to overcome her fear.
• Conversely, Nisha views the exam as a challenge. She does not get worked up.
• Instead, her moderate tension motivates her to study sincerely.
• She also knows that failure is a part and parcel of life and tries to learn from each mistake.
• Hence, she remains calm and confident even during the exam period.

According to Ayurveda, there are three types of Doshas; viz. Kapha, Vata, and Pitta.

• Kapha Dosha: Individuals who have Kapha as a dominant Dosha is calm, flexible, patient, and caring. They take a longer time to grasp a subject but have a strong memory.
• Vata Dosha: Individuals who have Vata as a dominant Dosha are unpredictable and moody. They get angry very quickly but they also calm down very fast. They are art lovers,
• Pitta Dosha: Individuals having Pitta as a dominant Dosha are very sharp. They are usually short-tempered.

(i) (A) John Watson

(ii) (B) response

(iii) (B) Calcutta

(iv) (A) Bangalore

• From 2000 B.C. to 500 A. C., Indian philosophers studied the mind and human behaviour from different viewpoints. They also described ideas like soul, mind, intuition, and so on. 
• Upanishads explain the self and personality structure with the help of a concept called Kosha. The different Koshas are Annamaya kosha, Pranmaya kosha, Manomaya kosha, Vidnyanmaya kosha, and Anandmaya kosha. 
• Ayurveda explained three types of Doshas; viz. Kapha, Vata, and Pitta and three types of Gunas; viz. Sattva Guna, Rajas Guna and Tamas Guna. Doshas determine characteristics of humans while Gunas explain human temperament.
• In the fifth century B.C., sage Patanjali explained deep thought about Psychology in Yogsutra. His theory of Ashtangyoga consists of eight aspects; viz. Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayam, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyan, and Samadhi. He also studied levels of human consciousness and elaborated on how one can evolve spiritually. 
• Many other Indian philosophers and saints also studied the mind and human behaviour.

(i) False

(ii) True

(iii) False

(iv) False

• According to Ayurveda, a concept to understand human temperament is called Guna. 
• There are three types of Gunas, viz. Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. 
• The impacts of Gunas are seen in the behaviour of an individual.
• People with Sattva Guna are calm and understanding. They do their work cautiously and promptly. They are aware of reality. 
• People with Rajas Guna are proud and have high self-respect. They are aggressive, (belligerent) 
• People with Tamas Guna are idle, sluggish, depressed, and not hardworking.

(i) True

(ii) True

(iii) True

(iv) True

• Wilhelm Wundt was a German Physician and Philosopher. 
• In the late 19th century, he established the first Psychological laboratory at Leipzig University to study human behaviour.
• He introduced the term conscious experience (i.e. awareness of the mental activities of an organism). This awareness includes the stored mental impressions of the past, present, and future.
• Wundt introduced the Introspection method. 
• He also conducted experiments on reaction time, perception, and consciousness. After that, Psychology emerged as a science.

• During 1950s and 1960s, the concentration of Psychology shifted from behaviour to cognitive processes. 
• Psychologists were interested in studying the various internal processes that trigger a particular responsibility towards the stimulus. 
• These processes comprise attention, memory, reasoning, etc. and they play an active role in the cognitive processes.

For your understanding 

Cognitive science is the scientific study of human thoughts. It examines mental actions of obtaining information as well as understanding through thoughts, experiences, and senses

(i) (B) behaviour

(ii) (B) Cognitive

Correct option is (A) 11

(a) Northern Atlantic Oceanic route

(d) Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea

The last guru or preacher of the Vaishnav religion.

Correct option: (d) Mediterranean Sea – Red sea

Correct option: (d) Moscow – Vladivostok

Correct option is (A) Torrid

South America:

• South America is the fourth largest continent, lying in the western hemisphere.
• It is triangular shaped.
• It covers 13% land area of the world.
• It consists of countries such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, etc.
• Inspite of large distance of this continent from other continents such as Europe, Australia and Asia, this continent has developed quite well politically, socially as well as economically.
• The four chief physiographic divisons of South America are :
  A. Andes Mountain, B. Central plains, C. North-eastern plateaus, D. Coastal plains -» South America consists of various landscapes like Amazon, Parana-Paraguay, alluvial plain of Orinoco river, torrid forests, highlands of Patagonia and desert of Atakamana.
• Various natural resources are obtained from the mountainous, plains and Amazon forests of South America.

Water sources:

• Most of the rivers of South America originate in Andes mountains and eastern highlands.
• Amazon, Negro, Rongue, Modera, etc. are the main rivers of Amazon.
• Amazon is the world’s longest river. It is 4827 km long.

Andes Mountains:

• Andes is the world’s highest mountain range outside Asia.
• These mountains lie in South America.
• They start from the land of South America adjacent of Panama in the north and end at the south of Horn Mountains.
• The mountain range is approximately 8900 km. long and is 160 to 600 km wide.
• The snow clad mountains are 6000 m high. Some peaks are as high as 6900 m.
• South America has more than two hundred volcanoes.
• Aconcagua volcanic mountain is 6960 m high.
• A country called Ecuador is considered as the home for several volcanoes. It consists of Chimborazo (inactive) and Cotopaxi (active) volcanoes.
• Ecuador also consists of a lake called Titicaca Lake. This lake lies in Bolivia at a height of 3660 m and it is 275 m deep.
• Andes Mountains is also origin of various rivers.

Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Switzerland, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland and Denmark.

1. Mohenjodaro

2. Pre Harappan Phase

(b) Mature (urban) phase – 2600-1900 B.C.E.

Given:

Steel cable’s length, I = 9.1 m

Radius, r = 5mm = 5 × 10^-3 m.

Tension in cable, F = 800 N

Young’s modulus = 2 × 10¹¹ N/m²

Young’s modulus,

Y = \(\frac{F}{A}\) × \(\frac{l}{∆l}\)

Or ∆l = \(\frac{F}{πr^2}\) × \(\frac{l}{Y}\)

= \(\frac{800×9.1}{3.14×(5×10^{−3})^2×2×10^{11}}\)

= 4.64 × 10^-4 m

1. Ahar

2. Ganeshwar-Jodhpura

Given: F_L = 120N, F_k = 80N, m = 40 kg, g = 9.8 m/s²

To find:

i. Coefficient of static friction (μ_S)

ii. Coefficient of kinetic friction (μ_k)

Formulae:

i. μ_s = \(\frac{F_L}{N}\)

ii. μ_k = \(\frac{F_K}{N}\)

Calculation:

From formula (i) we get.

N = mg = 40 × 9.8 = 392 N

∴ μ_s = \(\frac{F_L}{N}=\frac{120}{392}\) = 0.306

From formula (ii) we get,

∴ μk = \(\frac{F_k}{N}=\frac{80}{392}\) = 0.204

1. The coefficient of static friction is 0.306.

2. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.204.

Given: m = 20 kg, F_L = 100 N, μ_k = 0.4

To find:

i. Coefficient of static friction (μ_S)

ii. Minimum force required (F_k)

Formulae:

i. μs = \(\frac{F_L}{N}=\frac{F_L}{mg}\)

ii. μS = \(\frac{F_K}{N}\)

Calculation:

From formula (i),

μ_s = \(\frac{100}{20\times9.8}\) = 0.5102

From formula (ii),

F_k = μ_kN = μ_k × mg = 0.4 × 20 × 9.8

∴ F_k = 78.4 N

1. The coefficient of static friction is 0.5102.

2. The minimum force required is 78.4 N.

A force which changes the size and shape of body is called deforming force. 

A body regains its original shape and size after the removal of deforming force, it is said be elastic and the property is called elasticity. 

Example: Rubber, metals, steet ropes

This is due to elastic fatigue.

When a spring balance has been used for a long time, it develops an elastic fatigue, the spring of such a balance take longer time to recover its original configuration and therefore it does not give correct measurement.

Correct Answer is: (b) W₁ > W₂ (d) The force exerted by the liquid on the walls of the flask is (W₁ - W₂).

Pressure acts equally in all directions, and a liquid exerts forces on the walls of its container normal to the walls. Hence, the liquid exerting forces on the sloping walls of the conical flask will have a net upward component.

Correct Answer : (a) , (c) , (d) 

Due to the rotation of the earth on its axis, the apparent weight of an object becomes slightly smaller at the equator than at the poles. This difference can be recorded on a spring balance, but not on a beam balance.

Correct option is: (a, c, & d)

i) 0 Shell ‘N’. 

ii) 2n² (n = 1, 2, 3, ……..)

Electrons in an atom occupy shells in increasing order of energy.

The symbols used for the shells which accommodate the electrons are K, L, M, N, … respectively.

The elements are neon and argon.

Number of electrons present in K shell = 2(1)² = 2 × 1=2 

Number of electrons present in L shell = 2(2)² = 2 × 4 = 8

Total number of electrons in the atom = 2 + 8 = 10

1. The electronic configuration of helium is (2). It indicates that helium atom has two electrons. Both the electrons are accommodated in the K shell. The maximum capacity of the K shell is two electrons and is maintained in all the elements. Hence, two electrons in helium are placed in only one shell.

2. The electronic configuration of lithium is (2, 1). It indicates that lithium atom has three electrons. The first shell K accommodates two electrons, i.e., the maximum capacity of the K shell. The remaining electron is accommodated in the next shell, i.e., the L shell. Thus, three electrons in lithium occupy two shells (K and L).

There are two electrons in the K shell of helium.

Here,

p = 4 x 10^-9 cm

E = 5 x 10⁴ Nc^-1

θ = 30°

Magnitude of torque acting on the dipole,

τ = pE sinθ

= 4 x 10^-9 x 5 x 10⁴ sin30°

= 2 x 10^-4 x \(\frac{1}{2}\)

= 10^-4 Nm