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(i) Ostwalds' dilution law

(ii)  Faraday's second law of electrolysis

(a) (i) The Prime Minister is the leader of the Lok Sabha, and in this capacity his position is unique. 

(ii) The Prime Minister is the chief spokesman and the defender of the Government in the Parliament. When a Minister is under attack from the Opposition, he comes to his rescue. 

(iii) The Prime Minister makes all important announcements of the government policies on the floor of the House. 

(b) The Council of Ministers : 

(i) It consists of all the four ranks of Ministers – the Cabinet Ministers, the Ministers of State, the Deputy Ministers and Parliamentary Secretaries. 

(ii) The Council of Ministers is a large body, it meets occasionally. 

(iII) The Prime Minister’may not consult the Council of Ministers for taking important decisions. 

The Cabinet : 

(i) The Cabinet generally consists of Senior Ministers holding Cabinet rank and important portfolios.

(ii) The Cabinet is a small and cohesive group which meets regularly. 

(iii) The Members of the Cabinet are consulted by the Prime Minister on every important issue. 

(c) (i) The Cabinet formulates government policies, both national and international. It takes decisions on major issues before the nation relating to defence, security, development, planning, financial matters, etc. 

(ii) After the policy decision of the Cabinet is taken, it becomes the duty and an important function of the appropriate department under a Minister to faithfully carry out the decision. He must administer his department in accordance with the polity decision and in coordination with other departments. 

(iii) The Cabinet coordinates the working of all the departments, so that the whole government runs smoothly and set goals are achieved. The Prime Minister plays an important role in bringing about the coordination. 

(iv) Foreign relations, both diplomatic and trade, pacts or agreements with other nations are all decided by the Cabinet. The choice of diplomatic envoys and recognition of new states or regimes is also made by the Cabinet.

(a) The members of the Rajya Sabha from each State are elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly (i.e. the Lower House) of that State. 

• This is done by means of proportional representation through the Single Transferable Vote System. 

• The representatives of the Union Territories are chosen in such a manner as may be decided or prescribed by the Parliament. 

(b) The Rajya Sabha is a permanent House, hence it cannot be dissolved. Each member is elected for a term of six years. l/3rd of its total members retire at the end of every two years, and the equal number of new members are elected to fill the vacancies caused by the retirement of 1/3 rd members. 

(c) Financial Powers : The Lok Sabha controls the national finance. 

In this respect it has the following powers : 

1. The Budget : It has the power to pass the Annual Budget of the Union Government for the financial year. 

2. Supplementary Grants : If the amount sanctioned under the Demand for Grants in a financial year is found to be insufficient, the Government can make a fresh Demand for Supplementary Grants. It is also thoroughly debated and voted upon in the Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha can also sanction expenditure on contingencies. 

Legislative Powers :

1. Union and Concurrent Subjects : The Parliament can make laws on 97 subjects contained in the Union List, and 47 subjects contained in the Concurrent List. 

2. Residuary Powers : The Parliament has Residuary Powers also. It can make laws on a subject, which is not mentioned in any one of the three Lists, i.e. the Union List, the State List and the Concurrent List.

(a) The General Service Enlistment Act of 1856 provided that all recruits to the Bengal Army should be ready for service anywhere, whether within or outside India. 

(b) (i) Poverty and un-British rule in India. (ii) Magazine-Dharma Marg Darshak. 

(c) (i) Jyotiba Phule: Satya Shodhak Samaj. (ii) Raja Rammohan Roy: Brahmo Samaj. 

(d) (i) Through his writings he preached radical nationalism, inspired the Indian youth and kindled the fire of patriotism in them. 

(ii) He transformed the freedom struggle into the agitation of the millions and common masses. He, through his speeches and writings, accelerated its pace and widened its base. 

(e) (i) The Princely states that were officially related to the British Empire were made free from all the treaties and relationships.

(ii) They could decide which dominion to join. 

(f) (i) Non-Cooperative attitude of the League: The League had joined the Congress to obstruct the working of the Congress and not to cooperate with it. 

(ii) Communal Riots : The large scale communal riots that engulfed the whole country convinced all that the only solution to the communal problem lay in the partition of India. These riots were the outcome of “Direct Action” Day by the League. 

(g) (i) The German Army was disbanded. She was allowed to keep only one lac soldiers. 

(ii) She was not allowed to have any air force and the sub-marines. 

(h) Germany, Austria, Hungary and Italy. 

(i) A negative vote by a permanent member of a Security Council is called a veto power. 

(j) The main objective of the League of Nations was to preserve peace and settle disputes by arbitration.

(a) Every judge of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice and such other Judges of the Supreme Court or High Courts as he may deem necessary for this purpose. 

(b) A Judge of Supreme Court, including the Chief Justice, remains in office until he attains the age of sixty-five years. 

The procedure for impeachment or removal of Judges is as under : 

1. The resolution to impeach the President may be moved in either House of the Parliament after a notice of 14 days has been given. A list of charges must be supported by one-fourth of the total members of the House. 

2. Such a resolution must be passed by a 2/3rd of the total majority of the members of that House. 

3. Then the charges levelled against the President are investigated by the other House. The President can appear in person or through a counsel to defend himself. 

4. If the charges are approved by 2/3rd of the total majority, the impeachment is finalised and the President is removed from the day the impeachment resolution is passed. 

(c) (i) Judicial Review is the power of the Supreme Court to examine laws passed by the independent and the executive orders of the Centre and State governments in order to find whether these are in accordance with the Constitution or not. This is called Judicial Review. If an order or a law is found to be contrary to the Constitution, the Supreme Court declares it null and void. 

(ii) The Supreme Court has the power to review all laws, executive orders and ordinances.The Supreme Court has the power to declare them null and void, if these are found to be inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution.

(a) The General Service Enlistment Act of 1856 required all recruits to serve overseas. It ordered, a challenge to the castes who composed so much of the Bengal Army. 

(b) Western education widened the horizon of Indians. 

1. It gave them a rational, secular, democratic and national outlook. 

2. They learnt about the national movements in European Countries. 

3. The slogan “Equality, Liberty and Fraternity”, of the American and French Revolutions, impressed them. 

4. Revolutionary ideas of liberal thinks like Rousseau, Mazzini and Thomas Paine brought about social awareness and national consciousness among Indians.

(c) Dadabhai Naoroji. 

(d) Importance of Lucknow Pact of 1916: 

1. It brought about unity between Hindu and Muslim. 

2. It also brought Aggressive and Moderate leaders at the same platform. 

(e) Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali. 

(f) (i) It was boycotted everywhere because all its memers were Englishmen. 

(ii) The government showed no inclination towards accepting the demand for Swaraj. 

(g) (i) The treaties with the princely States would come to end. 

(ii) They would be free to associate themselves with either of the Dominions or to remain independent. 

(h) 

(i) The Sarajevo incident is the immediate cause of the First World War. It is related to the assassination of Austrain Archduke Francies Ferdinand and his wife on June 28, 1914 iff Sarajevo where they were shot dead. 

(ii) Austria saw the hand of Serbia behind the assassination of the Prince and served Serbia with an ultimation. Due to the support of Russia, Serbia refused to accept the demands. So Austria declared a war on Serbia. 

(i) Cold War means a situation when there is no actual fighting but a tense atmosphere prevailes. After the Second World War, World was divided into two blocks and there was tension between two blocs (Soviet Bloc and USA Bloc). This tension was termed as Cold War. 

(j) Two architects of NAM: 

1. President Sukarno of Indonesia 

2. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India.

(a) 

• Union Government. 

• State Government. 

(b) Universal adult franchise means that every person who has attained the age of 18 years is entitled to vote if he is not otherwise disqualified. 

(c) The speaker of the Lok Sabha is elected from among its own members by majority vote soon after the newly elected house meets for the first time. 

(d) The Vice-President has casting a vote in the case of an equality of votes i.e. dead lock. 

(e) The President is elected indirectly because it would be difficult to arrange election in which millions of people were to participate. 

(f) Answer has not given due to out of present syllabus. 

(g) 

1. Cabinet Ministers 

2. Ministers of state 

3. Deputy Ministers 

(h) The term Collective Responsibility means that all the members of the Council of Ministers are collectively responsible for the decisions taken by them pertaining to the Government of the State. 

(1) Supreme Court

(2) High Court 

(i) Session Court.

(a) (i) Fascism: Italy had to spend a lot of money during the First World War on her army and war equipments. She was under heavy debts. Italian government was faced with serious problems of poverty, hunger, disease and unemployment, Riots and strikes broke out all over the country. The government was not strong enough to maintain law and order in the state. In this situation of general lawlessness the Fascist seized the power in Italy. They had an imperialistic attitude. Italy turned towards Germany and Japan and concluded a treaty of friendship leading to BerlinRome-Tokyo Axis in opposition to Franco-British Alliance. In 1940, Italy entered the Second World War. Nazism: Hitler preached the Gospel of Victorious sword. He broke the bonds of the Treaty of Versailles and began to build up Germany’s armed forces. In March 1938, he made his first move to occupy Rhineland that had be demilitarized by the Treaty of Varsailles. He then captured Vienna. Soon he turned his attention to Sudetarland. The Czech government accepted the Munich Pact in the interest of Peace and Hitler’s troops occupied Sudetarland. Soon in March 1939 Germany invaded rest of Czechosolvakia without any justification. Hitler wanted to occupy Darzig corridor because it was mostly occupied by Germans and also he could connect East Prussia with Germany. On 1st September, 1939 Germans stormed into Poland. On 3rd September Britain and France declared war on Germany. Thus the Second World War began. 

(ii) Japan’s invasion of China: An important act of aggression after the First World War was the invasion of China by Japan in 1931. China appealed to the League of Nations to declare sanctions against Japan but Britain and France, the leading members of the League did not give any attention. Japan occupied Manchuria and set up a government there. In 1933 Japan left the League and started occupying British and American properties in China but Britain and France followed the policy of appeasement thinking Japanese could be used to – weaker China. On 7th December, 1941 Japan attached the US Fleet in Pearl Harbour in Hawai shocking the American. USA, declared war on the Axis power. 

(b) Consequences of the War: Everyone looked for a better and happier world after the Second World War. The horrors of the Two World War and the failure of the League of Nations led to a meeting of the Big Three—Roosevelt (President of USA), Churchill (Prime Minister of Britain) and Stalin (Premier of USSR) at Yalta in February 1945. They resolved to convene a conference of the representatives of all nations to draw up the Charter of the United Nations. This led to the establishment of the United Nations on October 24, 1945. The Wars left a legacy of misery and depression in nearly every country and UNO was established to maintain world peace and secure the economic and social as well as political security to every nation.

(i) The speakers are in one part of the island where Ariel had left them. They liad reached here aller their miraculous escape from the storm in the sea which was caused by Ariel. They liad jumped into tite sea to escape because the ship was about to sink.

(ii) Persuaded by Antonio, Sebastian had agreed to murder his brother Alonso and Gonzalo so that he was able to succeed to Alonso’s throne. While Alonso and Gonzalo were sleeping, they had decided to execute their plan of murder. In this regard Antonio had suggested to Sebastian that they should act with promptness. Antonio had convinced Sebastian that once Alonso was killed, his daughter Claribel would not come to claim the throne. Sebastian was sure to become the king of Naples.

(iii) Seeing that Gonzalo’s life is in danger, Ariel sings a song in his ear. In this song he tells Gonzalo that while he is sleeping, the conspirator is ready to avail himself of the opportunity. So he should wake up. Gonzalo wakes up and seeing Antonio and Sebastian with swords drawn awakens Alonso also.

(iv) Questioned by Gonzalo and Alonso as to why they have drawn their swords, Antonio and Sebastian tell them that they had heard a deep and distant growl like that of bulls or lions. This had awakened them and they had drawn their swords.

(v) Gonzalo had heard a low murmuring sound which had awakened him. Actually, it was Ariel’s voice buzzing in his ear to wake him up. At the end of this scene, Alonso and his companions decide to go on in search of Ferdinand. The king and Gonzalo were sure that he must be somewhere in the island.

(vi) (a) speedy, prompt 

(b) with swords drawn, ready to attack

(a) Non-Alignment: The term Non-alignment may be differently interpreted. Negatively a country that is non-aligned does not support or is not part of any Power Blocs. Non-Alignment aimed at keeping away from the Cold War. It should not be considered isolationism. It means the nations which are non-aligned judge each issue on its own merits and do not toe the line of one or the other super power. 

(b) Factors Responsible for its formation: 

1. Global tension caused by Cold War most newly independent countries of Asia and Africa realised the division of the world into Two Power Blocs was not in their larger interest and this might endanger World Peace. These nations felt that by maintaining distance from both the super powers they would put off the danger of another war or a nuclear holocaust. 

2. Need for Peace : Another factor was the need of peace without which there could be no development. Afro-Asian countries looked at arms race as dangerous for World Peace. At the same time they realised that they would be strengthening UNO by being non-aligned. 

(c) 1. The Asian Relations Conference took place in Delhi in 1947 in which he prompted the delegates not to joint any block and to get ready for the freedom of their countries. He prompted the new independent countries to remain united and maintain their separate identity. 

2. He along with the Chinese Premier Chou-En-Lai enunciated the five principles of peaceful co existence i.e. Panchsheel. 

3. The Bandung Conference of 1955 was a further step towards the formation of NAM. His principles of Panchsheel became the bedrock of NAM. 

4. Those were the efforts of Pt. Jawahar Lai Nehru and other prominent leaders like President Sukarno, President Gamal Abdel Nasser. President Josip Broz Tito that first summit of NAM was held from September 1 to 6, 1961 at Belgrade. The summit adopted the documents called “statement on danger of war and Appeal for peace”. 5. India under the leadership of Nehru played a leading role in various issues and problems of international politics, which strengthened the Non-aligned movement.

(i) By saying “Methinks I do”, Sebastian says that he fully understands what Antonio suggests when he asks, “For your advance-ment! Do you understand me”? 

(ii) Antonio meant that Sebastian should be inclined to look favourably on his lucky chance for his advancement. 

(iii) By the term ‘supplant’ it is meant that Antonio usurped the dukedom from his brother Prospero. Antonio treacherously took hold of the administration and usurped the dukedom of Milan from Prospero and left him and his three-year-old daughter in a broken boat at the mercy of the sea. 

(iv) The garments referred to are the clothes that were provided for the wedding of the King’s daughter Claribel at Tunis. The garments fit him more suitably. 

(v) Men who were once the men of Prospero are referred to as “my men” by Antonio. They were his ‘fellows’ when Prospero was the duke of Milan. Antonio’s tone, here, is of self-praise and contentment. 

(vi) On Antonio’s saying as above, Sebastian says, “But for your conscience”, which suggests that his tone is sarcastic and satirical.

(a) President Sukarno of Indonesia, President Tito of Yugoslavia, President Nasser of Egypt and Prime Minister Jawahar lal Nehru of India. 

Non-Alignment: Non-alignment is an independent movement that enables each nation to follow its own policies without joining any super power blocs nor coming under their influence. A non-aligned nation judges an issue on its merit. It upholds the rights of all people for freedom and allows them to have a choice of action on international issues. An important aspect of non-alignment is its antipathy to military alliance and its opposition to any form of imperialism. The Non-Aligned Movement has become one of the biggest peace movements in the world. The members of NAM are increasing steadily. At present, there are 108 members. President Tito defined NAM in the first summit at Belgrade, “This group of non- aligned countries is not a bloc, but a group of like-minded nations.” Though sometimes it is referred to as the Third Bloc NAM is exactly what its name implies, a movement rather than an organisation. 

(b) Factors that led to the formation of Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): 

1. The concept of non-alignment emerged soon after the World War II. It arose as a reaction against Cold War tensions and Military alliances. 

2. It was also an assertion of the national independence by nations of Africa and Asia. 

3. Another factor responsible for the adoption of policy was the poverty of these nations. 

(c) Role of Nehru in the Non-Aligned Movement: 

1. Nehru was largely responsible for the adoption of the said statement— Statement on the Danger of War and Appeal for Peace. 

2. (a) He laid emphasis on negotiations for peace, 

(b) Negotiations for complete disarmament, and 

(c) Ending imperialism in all its form. 

3. Nehru opposed the very idea of Power Blocs and strong condemnation of Acts of Aggression.

(a) A : Gopal Krishan Gokhale – He belonged to the moderate section of the congress. B : Lala Lajpat Rai – He belonged to the extremist section of the congress. Objectives: The ultimate objective of the Moderates was to bring constitutional and other reforms in India by presenting their demands before the British in peaceful way. On the other hand, the Extremists believed in the ultimate objective of Swaraj Or self-rule. They wanted to put pressure on England through revolutionary methods, and political agitation. 

(b) Methods adopted by: 

Moderates: The Moderates had full faith in British sense of Justice and fairplay and believed that Indians needed a balanced presentation of its demands before the British rulers. 

Therefore they did not follow a policy of confrontation but highlighted their problems in the following manner: 

1. They organized meetings and passed resolutions to achieve popular demands. 

2. They submitted memorandums and petitions to the government. 

3. They criticized the wrong policies of the government through Press. 

4. They sent high-level delegations to England to present Indian viewpoint before the British government. 

Extremists: The Extremists favoured the use of force and revolutionary methods for achieving their aims. The Extremists followed harsh methods and assorted to passive resistance. 

They adopted the following methods for the struggle : 

1. The Extremists mainly relied on the strength of their masses. They converted the national movement into a mass movement. 

2. Swadeshi was adopted by the Extremists to hit the British. It was a clear cut break from the method adopted by the Moderates. 

3. National education and boycott were other methods to achieve Swaraj. Swadeshi and Boycott were two sides of the same coin intended as an economic challenge to the British rule. Boycott was based on the philosophy of passive resistance. It involved withdrawing all cooperation to the government by boycotting everything such as British goods, offices and education. They also laid stress on national education. There was a need for promoting an education which could strengthen the national feelings. On 15th Aug., 1906, the National Council of Education was set up. 

(c) The notable contributions of Lala Lajpat Rai in the freedom struggle were : 

1. Being an aggressive nationalist, he exhorted people to fight repression with full strength during the Anti-Partition agitation. 

2. He started a newspaper called “The Young India” to propagate his ideas of radical nationalism among the people of India. 

3. He motivated the people to take action against the British rulers rather than prayers and petitions. For this purpose he delivered many seditious speeches due to this he was arrested and deported to Mandalay in prison fpr six months. 

4. He was assaulted by a British sergeant while demonstrating against the Simon Commission in Lahore in 1928. This incident fuelled anti-British passion and enraged revolutionaries.

(a) The Security Council is the executive body of the UN. It is composed of fifteen member nations. The USA, Russia, England, France and China are its permanent members. The other ten non-permanent members are elected by General Assembly for two years term. Each member of the Council has one vote. 

(b) Three objectives of the United Nations: 

1. To save succeeding generations from the ‘Scourge of War’ 

2. To maintain international peace and security and to take effective measures for removal of threats to the peace. 

3. To develop friendly relations among nations and to achieve international cooperation in solving problems of economic, social and cultural character. 

(c) UNICEF: United Nations International Children Emergency fund. 

Three Functions of UNICEF 

1. To render assistance in providing protective food like milk, meat, fish and fats to the children. It also takes care of interests of women and pregnant mothers. 

2. To provide funds for the training of health and sanitation workers, nutritionists and creche workers. 

3. Universal Child Immunization against preventable diseases by 1990 was one of the leading goals of UNICEF.

(a) Reasons Leading to the Non-cooperation Movement are: 

1. In 1918, those peasants who had been facing the effects of famine and drought resorted to Satyagraha to have their demands fulfilled. In 1918-1919 Ahmedabad mill workers strike also received Gandhi’s support. These movements of local character brought Gandhi closer to the life of the people. He would now think of challenging the total authority of the Government. 

2. The Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919 to curb the growing nationalist upsurge in the country as this act gave enormous power to the police to search a place and arrest any person they disapproved of without warrant. 

3. During a protest meeting in Amritsar against Rowlatt Act, the military commander of Amritsar, General O’Dyer ordered firing on a peaceful and unarmed gathering in which 1200 people got killed and 300 got injured, which shocked Gandhiji and he decided to stop co-operation with the British Government at all levels. 

(b) Two reasons behind the launching of Quit India Movement are: 

1. India was not willing to take part in the Second World War but was forced to join without any consent. Due to this the economy of the country worsened and the expenditure went up three folds. Due to this congress decided to start Quit India Movement. 

2. On the night of 9th August the British Government arrested many eminent leaders like Gandhiji, Moulana Azad, Sardar Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru and other members, of working committee and sent them to Pune. This hasty action of the Government lead to start the movement without any effort. 

(c) Impact of the Non-cooperation movement on the National Movement: 

1. The National Movement truly became a mass movement. 

2. It brought forward Hindu-Muslim unity as Khilafat leaders actively supported the Non-cooperation movement. 

3. The Demand for Swaraj became much more popular. 

4. The movement provide a great national base to the congress.

Role of traditional markets in rural India Traditional markets in rural India play the following role : 

Weekly market : These markets also caused ‘Haat’ happen either on a weekly or a bi-weekly pattern. 

Sell of commodities : The markets serve as a place of exchange. Here buyers and sellers come in contact, interact and exchange goods and services. 

Barter system : The initial versions of rural traditional markets were based on the barter system where people engaged in exchange of goods and services. Money as a medium of exchange was absent. 

Recreation centers : These markets also served as places where various types of entertainment happened. Artisans and artists showcased their talent and sold their products and services. 

Social interaction : Many people visited such markets to interact, form social networks, gossip fix marriage and catch-up with their kins from other village. 

Social structuration : The way in which the shops are placed such markets directly reflect the social stratification that is operative in the society. The higher castes have their shops in the central, critical locations whereas the lower castes have shops at the outskirts or periphery of the market. 

Products sold : Traditional markets witness the sell of various products ranging from forests products, vegetables to handicrafts etc.

With the situation turning violent day by day the Parliament had to take some stringent measures. 

The Parliament passed the Illegal Immigrants (Determination by Tribunals) Act (IMDT) in October 1983 and put it into effect in Assam. 

There were negotiations between the government and AASU-AAGSPO during the later parts of 1984 and early 1985. Official talks began in May 1985′, where the Home Secretary led the central government team. Several rounds of talks were held in various months. 

In the beginning, the Assam coalition government wanted the immigrants from the 1961-71 war to be removed to other parts of the country. However, by August 1985, it was decided that all the illegal immigrants who had entered Assam till January 1966 were to be identified, deported and defranchised for 10 years. 

This agitation finally came to an end in August, 1985 with ‘Assam Accord’, which was signed by the leaders of AASU-AAGSP and the Government of India in the presence of the Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.

The Congress committed to release all the political prisoners. Through the intervention of Gandhiji, 1,100 detenues of Bengal were released. In Uttar Pradesh, many prisoners, including the Kakori prisoners were released. 

The Congress also worked for removing restrictions on political exiles but were not successful. The prisoners who were imprisoned by Central Government could not be released from Andaman jails. Suspension order on the political parties and similar organisations were repealed. 

The major achievements of the Congress Ministers were 1. Reduction of the salaries of the ministers 2. Welfare scheme for the tribals  3.Jail reforms and 4. Declaration of fundamental rights. The Congress however formed ministries in different provinces but failed to introduce land reforms. The zamindars and the landowners, especially from interior regions, had influence on the Congress Party. The Congress did not want to lose the support of these zamindars and landowners. 

In Uttar Pradesh, most of the talukdars were Muslims. Land reforms might have affected their interests and Congress feared that they would join and support the Muslim League. Congress needed support from all sections, especially the landed aristocracy. Therefore, they did not take much action in Uttar Pradesh. 

The Congress ministers could not rule for long and resigned in November 1939 on the war issue. Congress claimed that the Viceroy had involved India in Second World War without consulting the Central Legislature and the Provincial governments.

During the Golap Barbara Ministry (March 1978-August 1979), emergence of students .union became prominent. All Assam-'Students’ Union or AASU was the strongest organisation and their main demand was deportation of foreigners from Assam. 

AASU spearheaded the movement against undocumented immigrants in Assam. When Hiralal Patwari died in 1978 and a by-election was required in Mangaldoi Lok Sabha Constituency to fill his seat, it was realised that there was a substantial increase in number of registered voters. 

AASU wanted the names of foreign nationals to be identified and deleted from electoral rolls. Therefore, they demanded for the elections to be postponed. This initiated Assam Agitation or the Assam Movement (1979-1985). 

The AASU and All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad (AAGSP) developed a strategy of protests and demonstrations to force the government to identify and deport the illegal immigrants. 

The two groups together on 27 November 1979, called for the closure of all educational institutes, and picketing began in state and central government offices. Filing of nomination papers for the elections was stopped in the Brahmaputra Valley. A statewide bandh was declared on the last date of filing the nomination papers. 

Though the agitation was mostly peaceful and non-violent, there was a massacre in Nellie and it turned violent. 

The government introduced curfew in many parts of the state, including Guwahati. As a result, Illegal Immigrants Act was passed in October 1983.

The term ‘Syndicate’ was the informal name given to a group of powerful and influential leaders who controlled the Congress party. The party was led by Congress President K. Kamraj and included many powerful leaders like Atulya Ghosh, S. K. Patil, N. Sanjeeva Reddy.

India’s first General Election of 1952 became a landmark in the history of democracy all over the world. The following were the features of general elections of 1952 : 

The elections took place according to the new constitution. The success reflected the faith of the Indian leaders in democracy. 

Inspite of having a large illiterate population, Jawaharlal Nehru had granted voting rights to all the adults through Adult Franchise. 

Sukumar Sen, the first Election Commi¬ssioner of India, along with 10 lakh government officials managed the entire election process with great care and caution. 

14 national parties, 53 regional parties and numerous independent candidates contested for 489 Lok Sabha and 3283 State Assembly seats. 98 Lok Sabha seats and 669 Assembly seats were reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. 

Congress won with huge majority with 75% seats in Lok Sabha and 68.5% seats in State Assembly. It had got absolute majority in most states except Madras, Travancore-Cochin, Orissa and PEPSU. It also formed coalition with smaller parties and independent candidates, and formed government in few states. There was no tradition of any leader of opposition then. 

The next winning party was the Communist Party of India and its allies. It won 23 seats in the Lok Sabha and 147 seats in the Assembly. 

Jan Sangh, Hindu Mahasabha and Ramrajya Parishad won only 10 seats in the Lok Sabha. 

Besides the above mentioned parties, former royals and big landlords performed well in certain regions of the country. 

In spite of achieving absolute power, the Congress followed democratic norms and encouraged the development of democratic ideas in the nation. The Opposition leaders participated in debates and gave constructive feedback for government policies. 

Full freedom was enjoyed by the press, the political parties, trade unions and other organisations. They could voice their opinions. 

Several leaders, such as Dr Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Rammanohar Lohia, J.B. Kriplani, A.K. Gopalan, etc. shared their valuable ideas on the working of the Central Government

Facilitating functions of marketing are : 

• Standardization and grading 

• Financing 

• Risk taking

Three staff locating system that are used in a modern office : 

Public Address System : It is the simplest and in some cases the most effective method of locating staff. Under this system a loudspeaker is used to broadcast an appeal from a master station to all the departments requesting the attention of the desired person. 

Bells and Buzzers: Bells and Buzzers are commonly used to call a messenger or a subordinate. The person called is given some message through sound. This system is noisy and at times the person fails to hear the bell or buzzer. 

Lighted Signals : These are installed to attract the attention of the particular person. Each person on the call list is given a code number. Whenever a particular individual is required, his code number is lighted on the signal and a buzzer is operated.

Routing the Visitor: Routing visitors involves different situations. Each situation may require a different action by the receptionist. 

Some of the more common situations are given below : 

Visitors with appointments : Visitors who have appointments can be handled easily. The receptionist may check a list of the day’s appointments or she may call the secretary of the officer concerned and inform that the expected visitor has arrived. In some cases, the secretary will come to the reception room and escort the visitor to the manager’s room. In other cases, the visitor may be escorted by a peon to the concerned officer’s room. 

Visitors without appointments: When a visitor arrives unexpectedly, the receptionist will telephone the proper executive’s office and inform of the visitor’s name and address. Sometimes, such visitors can be seen immediately. In other cases, they may have to wait. In case the visitor likes to wait he should not be forgotten. When the time allotted has passed, the receptionist should call the executive’s office. At that time, the visitor can be taken to the office or any further delay can be explained. If the visitor cannot wait and does not wish to return that day, an appointment for another day may be made through the executive’s secretary. A record of the visit should include the caller’s purpose, his address and his telephone number so that he can be contacted to see him later. 

Regular visitors: Regular clients or visitors form a special group whom the receptionist should know well. She should learn who they are and associate their names and faces with the companies they represent. In this case, a friendly greeting is essential. Visitors who cannot be received: Sometimes, a visitor asks for someone who is out of town or away from the office for some reason. In this case, the receptionist should learn the purpose of the visit and any other information that might prove useful to the company. 

For example, if an important visitor arrives unexpectedly, he may be asked to see another executive when the person whom he wants to see is not available. In other cases, his telephone number may be obtained so that calls can be made later. 

When the executive does not wish to see the visitor, the receptionist should use tact and diplomacy. If she has already told the visitor that the executive is in she must be polite but firm : “I am sorry Mr. Gupta, but Mr. Nair simply cannot see you today.” The receptionist should stick to the point and avoid arguments. In other cases, the receptionist can simply make the excuse, “Mr. Nair is not in his office.”

Functions of business letters : 

Wide Coverage: A business firm cannot sent its representatives to each and every area of operation. It can approach the persons and other firms through letters. 

Exchange of Information: Business firms can exchange information with various parties with the help of letters. They can obtain crucial information from other firms with regard to credit worthiness of other parties. 

Documentary Proof : Letters serve as documentary proof. Letters can be used as a documentary evidence in the Court of Law. 

Economical: Letters are the economical way of written communication. A message on pages (up to 20 gm) can be send in merely Rupees 5 envelope all over India. 

Lasting Impact: Letters have long lasting impact on the readers. A verbal message may be misleading but a written letter clears the complete picture.

On the basis of the principle of ‘Universal Adult Suffrage’ the first general election in India was held.

The observation of the receiver ‘s response is called feedback. It enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Without feedback, two way communications is either ineffective or incomplete. Feedback is the only way to gain receiver’s response and depending on the feedback, sender can take further steps.

‘Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons.” The process of communication is incomplete until the sender receives the feedback. If the feedback is in tune with the message, communication is said to be effective. 

Feedback is the key element in communication as it is the only way of judging the effectiveness of the message. Feedback indicates the knowledge about the outcome of communication. It begins when the receiver responds to the message and ends when the response reaches the sender. Feedback enables the sender to know whether his message has been properly understood or not. 

Feedback varies from one situation to another. In face-to-face communication there is immediate feedback. The sender can judge the effect of his message from the face of the receiver. While, in case of written messages, the feedback is not available immediately. The writer cannot see the facial expressions of the receiver. Feedback does not become available automatically in all situations. Feedback may also be collected through grapevine or oral communication.

Feedback—After receiving the message, the receiver derives the meaning from the message and responds to the sender. The return flow of communication is called Feedback. 

The process of communication is successful when the sender receives the feedback from the receiver. Feedback helps the sender to know whether the message communicated to the receiver has been understood by the receiver properly. 

Feedback depends upon the type of communication. 

In case of oral communication or face-to-face the communication feedback is immediately available and the sender can judge the effectiveness of his message communicated to the receiver immediately . 

In case of written communication, the feedback is not immediately available to the sender. The receiver may take time in sending response to the sender. Moreover, the sender cannot see the face expressions of the receiver.

The Board of Directors is entitled to exercise all such powers and do all such acts and things as the company is authorised to exercise by its Memorandum of Association and Articles of Association. In general, the Board of Directors has the power of superintendent, control and direction over the Managing Director and the Manager who are the persons entitled to manage the affairs of the company. 

The Board of Directors can exercise the following powers:

1. Powers to be exercised at Board Meetings: 

The following powers must be exercised in a Board meeting and cannot be delegated to other managerial personnel: 

• To issue debentures; 

• To issue and allot shares; 

• To fill up casual vacancies on the board; 

• To sanction contracts in which one or more directors have an interest; 

• To make calls on shareholders in respect of money unpaid on their shares; 

• To forfeit shares; 

• To recommend dividends; 

• To decide the terms and conditions of issue of shares and debentures;

2. Other powers: 

• To borrow money by means other than through debentures say through public deposits. 

• To invest the company’s funds properly. 

• To make loans. 

• To make contracts for the purchase and sale of the property on behalf of the company.

Semantic barrier refers to the study of meanings of words and signs. Semantic barriers arise due to problems in language. 

Three semantic barriers to communication are : 

Words with different Meanings: Communication is mainly carried through spoken or written words. But some words convey different meanings to different people. When the reader or listener assigns a different meaning to a word than what the writer or speaker intended, there occur miscommunication. People interpret the same word differently due to differences in their economic, social, cultural or educational background. 

Bad Expression: When the message is not formulated and presented in the proper manner, the receiver fails to comprehend it and misunderstanding occurs. 

Badly expressed message lose their impact. A badly expressed message causes loss of valuable time and money as it requires further corrections and clarifications. 

Faulty Translation : Each information received should be translated in a suitable form for further transmission. Often people translate words in a literal sense thereby losing the spirit behind the words. Inaccurate translation leads to misunderstanding and confusion.

The barriers of Communication are: 

Badly Expressed Message: Sometimes a manager is not able to communicate his message clearly to his subordinate due to omission of words, use of wrong words etc. which acts as a barrier to communication. 

Symbols with different meanings: A symbol or a word can have different meanings. If the receiver misunderstands the communication, it becomes meaningless. 

Faulty Translation: A policy and guidelines are received from top management by the superior in English language and has to be translated to the workers in the Hindi language. A faulty translation can create a problem.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel played a crucial role in integrating the princely states with the Indian Union.

During the British rule, there were more or less five hundred sixty five (565) princely states covering an area of 7,15,964 square miles and according to 1941 census, inhabited by 93,182,233 people. These princely states were the bulwark of the British power. But none of them enjoyed the attributes of independent sovereignty. After the independence, there were two alternatives left before them either to join India or Pakistan or to maintain their own independent status like before, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel now headed the new States Department which was created on July 5, 1947. Naturally he was empowered to have talks with the rulers of those native states. 

After a long discussion, by August 15, 1947, all the native states except Jammu and Kashmir, Junagarh and Hyderabad had signed the Instrument of Accession to become a part of Indian Union. Most of the princess surrendered the Defence, Communications and External Affairs which they had never enjoyed in reality. The Instrument of Accession thus, brought no change in the internal structure of those native states. 

The most ambitious prince, the Nizam of Hyderabad, declared to remain independent from the date of transfer of power. The Hindus of Hyderabad also revolted against the Nizam. The adamant attitude of the Nizam compelled the Government of India to interfere and apply force. The Indian Army was directed to take action and within five days the Indian army took complete control of Hyderabd. In 1948, Hyderabad became a part of the Indian Union. 

The Nawab of Junagarh expressed his desire to join Pakistan though a large number of Hindus lived there. They strongly opposed the decision of the Nawab and set up a temporary independent government there. The Nawab fled to Pakistan in 1948 and on the request of the people, the administration of Junagarh was taken over by the Government of India.

Feedback is essential in communication so as to know whether the recipient has understood the message in the same terms as intended by the sender and whether he agrees to that message or not. Receivers are not just passive absorbers of messages. They receive the message and respond to the subject matter about what they have understood. This response of a receiver to the sender’s message is called Feedback. Sometimes feedback could be a non-verbal, smiles, sighs and other times, it is oral. It can also be written like replying to an e-mail. etc.

(i) A managing director means a director who is entrusted with substantial powers of management which would not otherwise be exercisable by him. The “substantial powers” of management may be conferred upon him by virtue of an agreement with the company, or by a resolution of the company or the Board or by virtue of its memorandum and articles. The powers so conferred are alterable by the company. A managing director occupies the dual capacity of being a director as well as an employee of the company. The day to day management is entrusted to the managing director who can exercise powers of management without referring to the Board.

(ii) A manager of a company is the in-charge of a team. He makes plans, directs his team, motivates them to achieve their goals. In a company, every department can have a manager, for example, Manager Marketing, Manager Accounts, etc. The duties of different managers may vary according to their assignments.

There may be many barriers in the process of communication. The intended communication is often disturbed and distorted leading to a condition of misunderstanding and failure of communication. The barriers to effective communication could be of many types like linguistic. psychological, emotional, physical and cultural etc.

Measures to overcome the barriers to effective communication : 

Use of Simple Language : Use of simple and clear words should be emphasized. Use of ambiguous words and jargons should be avoided.

Reduction and elimination of noise levels : Noise is the main communication barrier which must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to identify the source of noise and then eliminate that source.

Active Listening: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between listening and hearing. Active listening means hearing with proper understanding of the message that is heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his/her message is understood or not by the receiver in the same terms as intended by the speaker.

Three barriers to Communication are : 

Semantic Barriers : These are related with the problems in the process of encoding and decoding of message into words or impressions. People interpret words and symbols in terms of their own experience and thinking. It includes faulty translations, technical jargon, unclarified assumptions etc.

Organisational Barriers : These arc related to organisation’s structure, authority, relationships, rules and regulations etc. Due to long lines of communication, flow of information gets delayed and distorted. Every layer of authority cuts off a bit of information, particularly in upward communication.

Personal Barriers: Personal factors like judgement, emotions and social values create a psychological distance between the sender and the receiver. When there is lack of mutual trust and confidence between sender and receiver of the message, communication is not effective.

(a) Collection and Payment of Credit Instruments: Banks collect and pay various credit instruments like cheques, bills of exchange, promissory notes, etc.

(b) Purchasing and Sale of Securities: Banks undertake to purchase and sale of various securities like shares, stocks, bonds, debentures etc. on behalf of their customers. Banks neither give any advice to their customers regarding these investments nor levy any charge on them for their service, but simply perform the function of a broker.

A debenture is a document issued by a company as an evidence of a debt from the company with or without a charge on the assets of the company.

Advantages of Debentures from View Point of a Company: 

• Funds raised by the company by way of debentures are required to be repaid during the lifetime of the company at the time stipulated by the company. As such, debenture is not a source of permanent capital. It can be considered as a long term source.

• In financial terms, debentures prove to be a cheap source of funds from the company’s point of view.

Disadvantages of Debentures from View Point of Company: 

(i) By issuing the debentures, a company is under two types of risks. These are payment of the interest at a fixed rate, irrespective of the non-availability of profits and repayment of the principal amount at the pre-decided time. If earnings of the company are not stable or if the demand for the products of the company is highly elastic, debentures prove to be a very risky proposition for the company. Any adverse change in the earnings or demand may prove to be fatal for the company.

(ii) Debentures are usually a secured source for raising the long term requirement of funds and usually the security offered to the investors is the fixed assets of the company. A company which requires less investment in fixed assets, may find debentures as a wrong source of raising the long term requirement of funds as it does not have sufficient fixed assets to offer as security.

Trade credit is an important external source of working capital financing. It is a short-term credit extended by suppliers of goods and sendees in the normal course of business, to a buyer in order to enhance sales. Trade credit arises when a supplier of goods or sendees allow s customers to pay for goods and sendees at a later date. Cash is not immediately paid and deferral of payment represents a source of finance.

Advantages: 

• There are no formal legal instruments/acknowledgements of debt. 

• It is an internal arrangement between the buyer and seller. 

• It is a spontaneous source of financing.

Ways of overcoming barriers to communication All the communication barriers as identified above, can be overcome with a conscious effort by observing the following rules.

• Before initiating an interaction our ideas must be planned and clarified. In order to make our ideas clear, we may discuss them with others. Build a climate of trust and confidence between the participants. 

• A time sense must be observed between the speaker and the listener so that the listener may understand and appreciate the speaker s ideas 

• Our speech and gestures must be consistent with each other. 

• In order to eliminate misunderstanding or miscommunication the speaker must adopt question-answer technique. The feedback from the listener is necessary to clear doubts. 

• Use simple language understandable to the listener. 

• The message must have a purpose and must be addressed to the listener.

Two Physical supply functions of marketing are: 

(a) Storage 

(b) Warehousing and storage.

Planning means looking ahead and chalking out future courses of action to be followed. It is a preparatory step. It is a systematic activity which determines when, how and who is going to perform a specific job. Planning is a detailed programme regarding future courses of action.

Limitations of Planning: 

Rigidity

• Planning has a tendency to make administration inflexible. 

• Planning implies prior determination of policies, procedures and programmes and strict adherence to them in all circumstances. 

• There is no scope for individual freedom. 

• The development of employees is highly doubted because of which management might have faced a lot of difficulties in future. 

• Planning therefore introduces inelasticity’ and discourages individual initiative and experimentation.

Misdirected Planning 

• Planning may be used to serve individual interests rather than the interest of the enterprise. 

• Attempts can be made to influence the setting of objectives, formulation of plans and programmes to suit one’s own requirement rather than that of the whole organization. 

• The machinery of planning can never be freed of bias. Every planner has his own likes, dislikes, preferences, attitudes and interests which is reflected in planning.

Time-consuming 

• Planning is a time-consuming process because it involves the collection of information, it’s analysis and interpretation thereof. This entire process takes a lot of time specially where there are a number of alternatives available. 

• Therefore planning is not suitable during emergency or crisis when quick decisions are required.

(i) Right to be protected against the marketing of goods and sendees which are hazardous to life and property. 

(ii) Right to be informed about the quality, quantity, potency, purity, standard and price of goods or sendees so as to protect the consumer against unfair trade practices. 

(iii) Right to be assured , wherever possible , access to a variety of goods and sendees at competitive prices. 

(iv) Right to be heard and to be assured that consumers interests w ill receive due consideration at appropriate forums.

Primary Functions of Commercial Banks 

1. To Receive Deposits Receiving deposits is the most important function of commercial banks. 

The deposits can be accepted in the form of the following types: 

(i) Saving Deposits: The people of middle and lower classes who wish to save a part of their income can invest in Saving Bank Accounts. Deposit in these accounts also earns interest at the rate announce by the RBI from time to time.

(ii) Demand Deposits: These deposits are also called current deposits. The current accounts are meant for big customers. There is no limit on the number of withdrawals, amount, etc. in the current account deposits. There is no provision of paying interest on such type of deposits. These accounts are generally opened by the businessmen.

(iii) Time Deposits: These deposits are accepted by the banks in the form of fixed deposits. These deposits are accepted for a fixed time period. The minimum time period for accepting a time deposit is 14 days. These deposits earn a higher rate of interest as compared to saving deposits. Time deposits are accepted for the maturity period of 1 year, 2 years, 3 years and so on respectively. Customers can take loan up to 75% of their deposit against the security of Fixed Deposit Receipt (FDR).

2. Sanction of Loans and Advances: The income of the banks is generated by sanctioning loans and advances to the eligible persons. The interest is charged at a higher rate. This rate of interest is generally higher than the saving deposit or fixed deposit rate allowed to the customers.

Types of Facilities under Loans and Advances 

(i) Overdraft Facility: Banks allow their genuine customers to withdraw up to a certain limit in excess of the borrower’s deposits. 

(ii) Advances: Banks generally provide short term and medium-term advances. Short term advances are sanctioned for a period up to 1 year. Medium-term advances are sanctioned for a period of more than 1 year but not exceeding 3 years. 

(iii) Discounting Bill of Exchange: Banks provide advances against the bills of exchange even before the customer receives money from the parties. These bills are discounted by the banks and payment is made to the customer. The bill is realised by the bank when a party sends money to it.

Merits of Borrowing Funds from Financial Institutions:

Immediate Infusion of Cash: The main benefit of borrowing money from a financial institution is the ability to obtain a large amount of money quickly. This money can be used for necessary purchases and investments, including investments in your ow n education. Financial institutions can lend more money than most friends and family members can.

Interest Rates: Financial institutions attach interest rates to the principal amount borrow ed. An interest rate can either be a positive or a negative. Borrowers with good credit can attain a loan with a lower interest rate. This, in turn, makes the loan less expensive in the long run. Borrowers with poor credit scores can likely only attain a loan at higher interest rates. This can make borrowing money an expensive decision and possibly unattractive as a financial option. Interest rates also fluctuate. As such, borrowers should watch interest rates to borrow when rates are low. A strong credit score and favorable market interest rates produce a favorable borrowing environment.

Collateral: Collateral is a legal interest, otherwise know n as a lien, that a financial institution places on an asset in case you default on your loan. A common form of this interest is the home mortgage. Collateral removes the risks a financial institution takes on when lending out large sums of money (a house mortgage or car loan, for example). Upon defaulting, the financial institution takes control of the asset and sells it for a profit to cover any losses. This secures the institution against losses and creates the freedom to lend out larger amounts. Loans backed by collateral, also known as secured loans, offer lower interest rates but present the clear danger of losing your property.

Traditional Banks and Credit Unions: Traditional banks and credit unions offer different benefits to borrowers. Traditional banks offer sen ices to all potential customers. Even though anyone can potentially use the financial services of traditional banks, these financial institutions often offer loans at high interest rates. Credit unions, on the other hand, are open to specific groups of people, usually people who live in a specific geographical location or those who belong to certain professions. These financial institutions often offer their members lower interest rates, but. unlike a bank, not everyone can become a customer.

Nature of Business : The requirement of working capital of an enterprise depends upon the nature of business. A trading concern like a garments show-room, a service concern like an electricity undertaking or a transport corporation have a short operating cycle. Their requirement for working capital is small. A manufacturing concern like cotton textiles or woollen factory will have a long operating cycle specially if they are selling their goods on credit. Hotels and restaurants have minimum requirement of working capital 10 to 20% whereas trading and constmction industries have highest working capital requirement 80 to 90%.

Size of the Enterprise: An enterprise working on a high level of activity has a higher level of working capital requirement and vice-versa. An increase in production from time to time will tend to increase the need of working capital.

Seasonally of Operations: Those firms which have marked seasonality in their operations have fluemating working capital requirements. A firm manufacturing refrigerators will have maximum sales during summer seasons and minimum sales during winter seasons thus affecting its working capital. Such firms have a need of higher working capital during summers and lower in winter season.

Firms also experience cyclical fluctuations in the demand of their product and services. During upward swing in the economy, sales will increase and hence, debtors too. Under boom, the firms generally do substantial borrowing to increase their productive capacity. Whereas a decline in the economy results in low level of sales, inventories, debtors etc. Rather, firms try to reduce their short-term borrowings.

Market Conditions : When competitive conditions are prevailing in the market, a larger inventory of finished goods in heeded as customers may not be inclined to wait. Further, a liberal credit policy may be offered to the customer by the competitors. Both the conditions demand higher level of working capital, more investment in finished goods and debtors as well. A higher collection period will also imply tie-up of larger funds in book debts. Similarly, delayed payments, if not checked in time, may increase the working capital requirements much to the detrimental of the entrepreneur.

Fixed capital consists of land, buildings, plant, machinery’, fixtures or any other property that is permanently committed to the business. (Example, for the last item is the regular working capital). These assets are not fixed in the sense of their value but fixed in the sense that they are committed to the business for a long period of time and difficult to be converted into cash in a short period. Fixed capital is usually highly specialized and if the business does not earn the minimum required rate of profits, these assets cannot be disposed of except at a loss. The fixed asset is needed to carry on profitable operations over a long period of time.

Factors affecting the requirement of fixed capital: 

1. The scale of Operations: Larger the spread of business activities, greater is the need for fixed capital. If a manufacturing enterprise is operating on a small scale, it will require less amount of fixed capital. On the other hand, a large-scale manufacturing enterprise will need relatively more amount of fixed capital.

2. Choice of Technique: Those manufacturing enterprises which make use of modern and automatic machines need a large amount of fixed capital. On the other hand, those enterprises in which production is carried out mainly through manual labour need for fixed capital is very little.

3. Technology Upgradation: There are some businesses where a fixed asset is used and which does require immediate change. These days computer technology is undergoing rapid changes. Therefore, those companies whose business is computer-based need more fixed capital.

4. Growth Prospects: 

There are two types of organisations from the point of view of growth:

• Such organisations, which have no possibility of growth. They do not need additional fixed capital in future, 

• Such organisations have more possibilities of growth. They need more additional fixed capital. Such organisations make a choice of the sources of finance well in advance so that in case of need additional finance can be made available.

Special Financial Institutions: A wide variety of financial institutions have been set up at the national level. They cater to the diverse financial requirements of the entrepreneurs. They include all India development banks like IDBI, SIDBI, IFCI Ltd, UBI; specialised financial institutions like IVCF, ICICI Venture Funds Ltd, TFCI; investment institutions like LIC, GIC, UTI: etc. 

Advantages of Special Financial Institutions are:

• They provide finance for the growth of the industry. 

• They accelerate the growth of the industrial sector by encouraging them to have better industrial output.